Regional Bib Final

7/29/2019 Regional Bib Final

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technological advancement like no other, but we had to face thepossibility that it held intense missile capability

Selected BibliographyPrimary SourcesArchival Footage

President Eisenhower's State of the Union Address. Dwight D.Eisenhower, 1958. Pbs.org. Web.

President Eisenhower delivered this message to Congress with thepurpose of "[outlining] the measures that [could've given] theAmerican people a confidence in their own security." Recognizingthat the threat faced by Americans was increased by "advancingindustrial, military, and scientific establishment", not just "militarystrength, Eisenhower asked "Congress [to] enact necessarylegislation" to "[improve] industry, education and research, and

science." by "[investing] about a billion dollars over a four yearperiod." This first hand account gave us a better insight of howafter the launching of Sputnik, Eisenhower and the United Statesas a whole preferred "improving science education" over "militarystrength" as a way to improve and preserve national security.

Sputnik: First Space Sattelite. NBC. 07 Oct. 1957. Nbclearn.com.National Broadcasting Company. Web.

Not long after the launching of Sputnik, American's were madeaware of the events in Moscow. It was within three days that a

news segment was broadcast on NBC that showed the technicalaspects of the launch, including those about the R-7 Semyorkamissile, "its weight estimated 50 tons," and Sputnik 1, "a 23-inchmetal sphere." This newsreel provided us with details on how themedia portrayed Sputnik to the general public ["one of the greatscientific feats of the age"], and also the fact that they were ableto hear the sounds that it transmitted.

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Selected BibliographyPrimary Sources

Letters

Dwight D. Eisenhower: "Letter to Nikolai Bulganin, Chairman, Council ofMinisters, U.S.S.R." January 13, 1958. Online by Gerhard Petersand John T. Woolley. The American Presidency Project.

Realizing that "the Soviet Union [was] no longer weak",Eisenhower sent a letter to Bulganin, with which he discussedpeace proposals. In his letter, Eisenhower agreed that for the sakeof "[maintaining] international peace and security", both theSoviet Union and United States had to stop "the mountingproduction [and testing] of new types of weapons", especially

nuclear weapons. Furthermore, Eisenhower proposed that "outerspace should only be used for peaceful purposes" rather than"military purposes" to prevent "the human race [from destroying]itself." Eisenhower's letter helped us understand his thoughts andopinions about the usage of military weapons and spacetechnology after the launching of Sputnik.

Dwight D. Eisenhower: "Statement by the President on the AgreementWith the Soviet Union Covering Cultural, Technical, andEducational Exchanges." January 27, 1958. EisenhowerPresidential Library, Abilene, KS.

Three months after the launching of Sputnik, President Eisenhowerproposed a "temporary educational Federal program" to Congressto ensure "national security". Such program would lead to the"expansion of other programs" (especially the National ScienceFoundation) and "give special attention to education in [math,]science, and engineering" as a way of "encouraging able studentsto consider science [and engineering] as career." Eisenhower'sproposal helped us understand how this reaction shifted Americaneducation in terms of improving both its science and math fieldsand allowing more educational opportunities for students.

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Selected BibliographyPrimary SourcesMemorandums

Memorandum for the President Regarding U.S. Scientific SatelliteProgram Budget, October 8, 1957 [DDE's Records as President,Official File, Box 625, 146-F-2 Earth-Circling Satellites] EisenhowerPresidential Library, Abilene, KS.

At the time, the cost of the program [The American SatelliteProgram was estimated at $15 million to $20 million. From thisprimary source document, we were able to gain useful informationon the United States satellite program. This project was financedthrough the emergency fund of the Department of Defense. By thedate of August 31, 1957, The Department of Defense reports that

$67.9 million had been obligated for the project and $50.7 millionhad been expended. We were able to utilize this information onthe documents tab on our website.

Memorandum of Conference with the President. October 8, 1957, 8:30a.m. (dated October 9) [DDE's Papers as President, DDE DiarySeries, Box 27, October '57 Staff Notes] Eisenhower PresidentialLibrary, Abilene, KS.

On October 8, 1957, four days after the launch of Sputnik 1,President Eisenhower and members of his administration met for a

conference to discuss why the U.S. had not launched a satellitebefore the Soviets, and future plans. Donald A. Quarles, Secretaryof Defense at that time, stated that the U.S. "could have orbited asatellite a year or more ago. This firsthand account provides adetailed conversation between Eisenhower and Quarles, whichallowed us to know why the Soviet Union won the race to space,and how concerned the President was to overcome this.

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Public Opinion Index. April 14, 1958 [DDE's Records as President,Official Files, Box 625, 146-F-2 Earth-Circling Satellites]Eisenhower Presidential Library, Abilene, KS.

Sputnik spread an "alarmed point of view" among manyAmericans. Even though some Americans blamed Eisenhower'sAdministration for such defeat, between 69% and 67% of theAmerican public either placed the blame on our schools becausethey "have placed to little stress on science" or us Americansbecause we "[were being] too smug and complacent about ournational strength." Additionally, the launch made Americansrealize that "[we were failing] to give scientists the salaries andrecognition their importance deserves." This memo helped us tofurther understand the lessons Americans learned from thelaunching of Sputnik.

Statement by the National Science Board in Response to RussianSatellite. October 1957 [DDE's Records as President, Official File,Box 625, 146-F-1 Soviet Satellites] Eisenhower PresidentialLibrary, Abilene, KS.

This event [Sputnik] is dramatic evidence of a rapidlyaccelerating pace in the advance of science and technology. TheNational Science Foundation published this statement in order torecognize Sputnik as a great scientific and technicalachievement and take notice to the state of scientific endeavor

and education in the United States. The NSF stated that thecountry must strive to improve in these areas for future scientificprogress. This information added to the primary documentssection of our website.

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Political Cartoons

"Eisenhower Enjoying a Game of Golf While Sputnik Raced Overhead."Cartoon. Checktheevidence.com. New Statesman, 19 Oct. 1957.Web. 29 Nov. 2012.

The cartoonist shows Eisenhower's lack of concern with the Sovietthreat by depicting him playing a game of golf, ignoring the firstsatellite flying above him. In this cartoon, Sputnik is flying overEisenhower's head literally and figuratively; which illustrates all ofAmerica being left behind in the technological field by the Soviet

Union. The speed of the satellite directly relates to the speed ofthe Soviet Union's advanced technology. From this cartoon, wegained a better understanding of the way America felt about theconcerned exhibited by the President by the launch of Sputnik.

Stein, Eli. "McNaught Syndicate. February 5, 1958. Cartoon.EliSteincartoons.com. N.p., 06 June 2008. Web.

Within one year of the launching of Sputnik 1, many systems inAmerica had already been affected, especially the work force. Theevent brought waves of scientific and mathematic reform, which in

turn, caused more individuals to seek out careers in engineeringfields. This cartoon provided us with an example of how a jobinterview went after Sputnik. This gave us a view on real worldexperiences due to the effect of the launch.

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Newspapers and Periodicals

Harwood, William B. "Operation Vanguard Will Answer Sputnik." TheMilwaukee Journal24 Oct. 1957.

In this article, plans are revealed to the public about the UnitedStates' plans to launch Vangaurd, an artificial satellite, in responseto Sputnik. The tests before the actual launch were successful, andhopes were high for the actual launch. "The Soviet first has notchanged the United States programming except to heighten it."The Sputnik launch acted as motivation for America to better

ourselves in the realm of space. Through this primary document,we were able to deeper our understanding of the U.S to pull aheadof the Soviet Union.

"Red's Launch First Satellite Into Space." Schenectady Gazette 5 Oct.1957.

Sputnik 1, only the size of a basketball and weighing185 poundsamazed scientists and engineers around the world. "[The size] isreally amazing. If they can launch that, they can launch muchheavier ones." The Soviet Union had been silent about their

scientific progress since the previous June, so the launch ofSputnik 1 was especially shocking. Although shocking, thisimpressive scientific achievement was both feared and admired.Moreover, this firsthand account was helpful to the building of oursocial point of view on our website.

"Reds Say Secret Power Boosted New Sputnik." Spokane Daily Chronicle[Spokane] 4 Nov. 1957.

One of the biggest scares during the Cold War was the potentialfor nuclear power. This source gave us a firsthand look into the

technology the Soviets used to launch the second Sputnik and thefear of the Americans when this information was released. TheSoviet announcement about their new technology "brought arenewal of demands that [The US] speed up its missile andsatellite programs." America was preparing for a nuclear war.

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"Two Years After Sputnik 1." The Pittsburgh Press 4 Oct. 1959.

"There have been 15 successful satellite launches altogether -

three Soviet satellites and 12 American satellites." Two years afterSputnik 1, this article was a reflection of American space victoriessince 1957. We gained insight to the fact that although the UnitedStates had launched more satellites, they were in little comparisonto those of the Soviet Union.

"U.S Sputnik Spotters Say They've Seen It." St. Petersburg Times 11 Oct.1957.

"Sputnik spotters in the United States and Canada reportedyesterday that they had sighted Russia's speeding earth satellite

and the third stage of the rocket that hurled it into space." As oneof the first newspaper articles published after the launch ofSputnik, first-hand accounts of the satellite are displayed. Thesatellite was visible from earth; as reported by an Americanbystander, "...it [Sputnik] appeared as a faint star." This primarysource displayed the average person's perception of the Sovietsatellite.


Photographs

DDE Has a Special Broadcast on the Little Rock Situation. 1957.Photograph. Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library & Museum,Abilene, KS.

This primary photo of Eisenhower was used in our website on thehistorical context and important people page.

Sputnik 1 (PS-1). 1957. Photograph. NASA Images. NASA, 5 Oct. 1961.

Web. 26 Nov. 2012.

Sputnik 1 was the size of a basketball and weighed a mere 184lbs. We incorporated this primary image into out home pagebanner.

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Vice Presidential Oath of Office Administered to Richard M. Nixon bythe Honorable William Knowland, Senator of the U.S.Senate. 1957. Photograph. Library of Congress, Washington, DC.

Richard Nixon was vice president at the time of Sputniks launchand also participated in the famous Kitchen Debate withKhrushchev. We used this photo to represent Nixon on theimportant figures page.

United States Federal State and Local Government Spending: FiscalYear 1958. 1958. Photograph. Bicentennial Edition: HistoricalStatistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970, n.p.

This primary chart was very beneficial to our website by its

depiction of the amount of government funds spend oneducational and research programs.


Magazines

Mcdougall, Walter A. "Sputnik, the Space Race, and the Cold War."Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. May 1985: 20-25.

By 1958, the U.S. was driven to triumph over the Soviets, who had

"won the race" in the advancement of space technology with thelaunch of Sputnik 1.The Eisenhower administration was quick topass the National Defense Education Act, which led to the creationof the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Thiswas a turning point in the U.S.'s economy, as Mcdougall statesthat "spending on research and development leapt from $6.2billion... to $14.3 billion" from 1955 to 1960. This source providedus with insight into the extent of the US's competitiveness tooutdo the USSR, and the economic effects that followed.

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"The Sputnik Syndrome." Time Inc. 1 Sept. 1958.

More than a year after Sputnik's launch, American's were going

through "Sputnik Syndrome" characterized by "helplessly andhopelessly...falling behind the U.S.S.R. in military technology."These social effects on Americans caused the U.S. government tobegin nuclear submarine explorations, deploying mobile forcesaround the world, and also focusing on space research. Thismagazine article, from the era, helped us discover the public'sfeelings and the government's reaction to Sputnik.


Speeches

Eisenhower, Dwight D. "Our Future Security." Speech. MunicipalAuditorium, Oklahoma City. 13 Nov. 1957. Dwight D. EisenhowerPresidential Library. N.p.: National Archives and RecordsAdministration (NARA).

The launching of Sputnik revealed "Soviet competence in scienceand techniques important to warfare." In his speech on November13, 1957 delivered at Oklahoma City, Eisenhower suggested howto increase "national security" after the launch of the SovietSputnik 1. In order to ensure the "nation's security", Eisenhower

encouraged an "increase in every kind of military and scientificexpenditure." By doing this, Eisenhower wante to increaseAmerican "defense" and "[strengthen its] scientific education andbasic research". Eisenhower's reaction to the launching of Sputnikprovided a means of understanding how this reaction wouldtransform the nation.

Kennedy, John F. "JFK: Man on the Moon Address." Address to Congress.CBS. Web. 6 Nov. 2012.

On May 25, 1961, President Kennedy proposed his goal to

Congress to land the first man on the moon and bring him backhome safely. This primary footage accurately illustrated thepassion of the president at this time to achieve the goal. Thereaction from the crown proudly displays the American support ofKennedy and his goal to land the first man on the moon. Thisfootage helped us to better understand the feelings of theAmericans at the time period.

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Selected Bibliography

Primary SourcesBooks

Flesch, Rudolf. Why Johnny Can't Read And What You Can Do about It.New York: Harper & Brothers, 1955. Print.

Flesch was one of the many people at the time before the Sputniklaunch that was concerned with the quality of American schools.This primary book displayed the urgency to change the approachto the school system, and showcased the deficient teachingmethods of reading education. Like many people from the time

period, Flesch mentioned that the school system was "in crisis."From this book, we gained deeper insight of the actual stateAmerican education was in before the launch of Sputnik.

Bestor, Arthur Eugene. Educational Wastelands; the Retreat fromLearning in Our Public Schools. Urbana: University of Illinois, 1953.Print.

During the time period before the launch of Sputnik, many bookswere published about the quality of American education. Bestorbelieved that America was going through a "crisis in education."

The education system was lacking and "divorcing the schools fromthe disciplines of science and scholarship." From this primarysource, we gained useful knowledge about the historical context ofour topic.

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Selected Annotated

BibliographySecondary Sources

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Selected BibliographySecondary SourcesArchival Footage

Declassified: Sputnik. Dir. Rushmore DeNooyer. Prod. Kirk Wolfinger. PBS(Public Broadcasting Station), 2007. DVD.

"Sputnik I stunned the world and spurred a surge in scienceeducation and innovation that changed our world forever." Thepublic reaction to the event spread worldwide quickly, putting a

spotlight on the United States, and more specifically, PresidentDwight D. Eisenhower. He claimed to be "ready to engage withany orders," in order to respond to such a crisis, and shortly afterthis statement, he "authorizes illegal military over flights tophotograph the Soviet Union." This piece of archival footageprovided our group with an extensive amount ofrecordings/videos, covering the launch of Sputnik, the reactionsfrom the public, presidential actions, and more; all from theSputnik era.

The Fifties: Volume 6 The Road to the Sixties. By David Halberstam's.

Dir. Tracy Dahlby. The History Channel, 1997. Videocassette.

"In the post-war boom of the fifties, the American Dream was bornof innocence, prosperity and peace. Yet beneath the surface,turbulent times were brewing... But with the launch of SputnikAmerica took a back seat to the Soviet Union in the 'Space Race.'"This volume, part of the series "The Fifties" provided us withprimary footage, and American citizens' reactions to the launch ofSputnik. This helped us understand their perspectives on theevent, and the fear that they felt as a result of Sputnik 1's launch.

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Selected BibliographySecondary Sources

Interviews

Lucena, Juan C. "Interview with Professor Juan C. Lucena."Telephone interview. 7 Nov. 2012.

Lucena, Professor of International Studies, thoroughly explainedwhat factors contributed to "Soviet superiority in math and

science" during the Cold War and what impact did the launch ofSputnik have on America's education. He specifically stated thatunlike the United States, the Soviets consisted of "greatuniversities, great specialities in engineering, and then thecontributions of women and minorities [in science andengineering.]" This interview provided us with good historicalcontext and further detailed information about the launchingSputnik and its impact on American education.

Gavin, Francis J. "Interview with Professor Gavin." Telephone interview.14 Nov. 2012.

Gavin, an expert on foreign policy, provided us with a differentperspective about the United States before and after the SputnikEra. Expressing a bias perspective towards Americans, Gavinadmitted that even though the Soviet accomplished launchingSputnik into Space "", it certainly "would be a mistake to say theywere superior" because "the U.S. [was] at a better technologicalbase] and knowledgeable on "broader range of things." Finally, headded that "Sputnik really brought home to Americans the ideathat they were vulnerable to any nuclear attack", encouraging theU.S to "to put [a whole bunch of money] for scholarships for

people to go to college and study engineering and math [and alsoboth the Space Race and missile technology.]" This interviewmade us understand that the launching of Sputnik createddifferent perceptions in America and also provided us with furthereffects of Sputnik in America.

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"Interview with Professor Rudolph." Telephone interview. 14 Nov. 2012

Professor Rudolph, an expert on the history of science, believedthe launching of Sputnik as positive effect on America. Heexplained the fact that " the Soviet Union at that time wascertainly putting more resources and effort into the math andscience education at the college level in their high schools and intheir elementary schools," leading to the launching of Sputnik and

showing the Americans that they "had the technical capabilities tolaunch something into orbit" and "send nuclear weapons aroundthe world as well." The Soviet "technological threat" served as "anexcuse [for the American federal government] to get involved inthings like school and the National Defense Education Act", whichbrought a "large amount of money [into education] and be able "toidentify [talented American students] to become scientists,mathematicians, and engineers." This interview furthered ourunderstanding on why and how Americans committed toimproving education after the launching of Sputnik.

Wang, Zuoyue "Interview with Professor Wang." E-Mail Interview. 5 Feb.2013. Personal Correspondence.

Professor Wang, an expert on History of science and technologyand on the U.S. Cold War scinece policy, clearly expressed how"[in] the long run, the vigorous reactions to Sputnik, especially inthe areas of science, education, and technology helped strengthennational security." The launching of Sputnik pushed for the"appointment of moderate scientists as science advisors [for theUnited States] federal government." Furthermore, the launcheventually motivated DARPA to "lessen inter-service rivalry) by

"[pushing] advanced military and civilian technologies (such as theinternet)." This interview with Professor Wang provided uswithfurther understanding about the long run effects of Sputnik, "suchas [the spreading] of Internet" service throughout the civilian andmilitary community.

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Newspapers and Periodicals

Hubbard, G. Scott. "Sputnik: The Little Metal Ball That Fueled the ColdWar." San Francisco Chronicle 06 Oct. 2007.

Hubbard, professor in Stanford's Department of Aeronautics andAstronautics, stated that "the impact of the launch of Sputnik wasimmediate and profound" in the United States. Its launch lead to"scientific achievement" and "new legislation like the 1958National Defense Education Act [invested] large sums of moneyinto science, engineering, and technology training." As a result,Hubbard, himself, admitted that "[he] would never have become arocket scientist without the federal support available for students."This source helped us understand how the launch of Sputnikencouraged the U.S to support space education through neweducational policies and how students interested in the space field

benefited from it.

"Reds Say Secret Power Boosted New Sputnik." Spokane Daily Chronicle.4 Nov. 1957

One of the biggest scares during the Cold War was the potentialfor nuclear power. This source gave us a firsthand look into thetechnology the Soviets used to launch the second Sputnik, and thefear of the Americans when this information was released. TheSoviet announcement about their new technology "brought arenewal of demands that [The US] speed up its missile andsatellite programs." America was preparing for a nuclear war.

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Books

D'Antonio, Michael. "New Moon Worries."A Ball, a Dog, and a Monkey:1957, the Space Race Begins. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2007.

D' Antonio stated that prior to Sputnik's, "devastating blow to theprestige of the United States, both the Soviets and the"Americans had started slinging animals into the air". "Theseanimal-in- rocket experiments provided valuable information"because they helped scientists "gather data on the effects [ofextreme flight conditions]". DAntonios book helped us get abetter historical background prior to Sputnik and how a series ofevents eventually lead to the launching of Sputnik on 1957.

Dickinson, Paul. Sputnik: The Shock of the Century. Colorado Springs:

Walker, 2007.

President Eisenhower's reason for not reacting "with alarm overSputnik going into space" was because the White House, CentralIntelligence Agency, Air Force, and a handful of contractors werecreating a spy satellite that "could tell American intelligence whereevery Soviet missile was located." From this source we were ableto deepen our understanding of President Eisenhower's actionsand reactions to Sputnik.

Hartman, Andrew. Education and the Cold War: The Battle for the

American School System. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008.

After the launch of Sputnik, America felt pressured to revise thestandard educational system, schooling became moreprogressive in the 1950's as compared to the conservative waythat things were before. The Cold War and especially the Soviet'svictory with the first satellite in space pushed America to make achange with its students. This source helped us to acquire

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information about the American educational system before andafter the Sputnik.

Killian, James R. Sputnik, Scientist, and Eisenhower. Massachusetts:MIT, 1977. Print.

Killian explained that even the tough-minded men and women...were touched with apprehension and some hysteria." Many were

feeling like John Rinehart of the Smithsonian AstrophysicalObservatory who declared "no matter what we do now, theRussians will beat us..." This personal account helped us tounderstand the social effects of Sputnik's launch on the Americanpeople.

Levine, Alan J. The Missile and Space Race. Westport: Praegar, 1994.Print.

Levine provides details on the beginning of the space race, andhow the US enters. When he recalls a statement made by

President Eisenhower's assistant, Philip Wyle, Levine states that hewarned that "American prestige would be hurt seriously if theSoviets were first." Once the USSR launched the first Sputnik in1957, it was a turning point in the US's competitive side inscientific technology, as they responded by launching the satellite"Vanguard" only five months later.

Lucena, Juan C. Defending the Nation: U.S. Policymaking to CreateScientists and Engineers from Sputnik to the War againstTerrorism. Lanham, MD: University of America, 2005.

Lucena, Professor of International Studies, stated that up untilSputnik, the governments attention had been focused ondeveloping scientists and engineers for atomic energy." However,after the launch, the "[United States] began to see education asthe institution that could preserve national security." FromLucenas book, we gained information pertaining to how thelaunch of Sputnik led to a reformation in American education,

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which encouraged an increase in the production of scientists andengineers.

Smith, Robert W. Reconsidering Sputnik: Forty Years Since the SovietSatellite. London: OPA, 2000.

After the Soviet's launched the first satellite, The United States

immediately rushed into launching our first, and the space racewas in full swing. Immediately after the launch of Sputnik, The U.S.Defense Department responded to "political furor" by approvingfunding for another US satellite program. This led to the successfullaunch of the American launch of "Vanguard" in 1958. Smithsbook provided us with a good insight into the American victories ofthe space race as a result of the first "red victory".

Stine, Deborah D. U.S. Civilian Space Policy Priorities Reflections 50Years after Sputnik. [Washington, D.C.]: Congressional ResearchService, Library of Congress, 2008.

According to Stine, specialist in science and technology policy,"U.S. government undertook several policy actions" in "responseto [the Sputnik moment]."Such policy actions included " theestablishment of the [NASA] and the [DARPA], enhancement ofresearch funding, and reformation of science, technology,engineering, and mathematics (STEM) policy." The "Sputnikmoment, along with the U.S policy actions taken afterwards,eventually [influenced] the nation's civilian space policypriorities" in terms of undertaking scientific observation andexperimentation to add our knowledge and understanding of the

Earth, solar system, and universe." This professional accounthelped us understand how the "Sputnik moment" led to America'sreformation in education and space policy priorities.

Wang, Zuoyue. In Sputnik's Shadow: The President's Science AdvisoryCommittee and Cold War America. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers UP,2008. Print.

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Wang provides details about turning points from the Cold Warperiod through the twentieth century. The Physical ScienceAdvisory Committee played a large role in post-Sputnik sciencereform. "...Eisenhower agreed with the PSAC on the need forscience advising to integrate technical evaluation." Through the

authors insight, our group grasped a better idea of how thelaunch of Sputnik politically affected the United States.


Website Articles

Addams, Kaitlin. "The Sputnik Moment."American Politics Journal. N.p.,22 Feb. 2010. Web. 02 Dec. 2012..

In a website article by Addams, she details the story of her earlychildhood in school; which was affected by Sputnik. Her mainfocus is around the "Sputnik moment," a term Addams uses todescribe the national unity that the ""23 inch ball of titanium,aluminum and magnesium" brought to America in 1957, and thedetermination that the government held to ""catch up with theSoviet endeavors in space." This first hand account of how a young

student's educational experiences unfolded, during the SputnikEra, helped us understand how scared the children felt after thelaunch of Sputnik, and how it affected the funding of theireducation.

"Chemical Education Materials Study - CHEM STUDY." Csun.edu.N.p., n.d. Web. 31 Dec. 2012.

CHEM study was established in order to "develop an originalcurriculum in high school chemistry and the materials needed toimplement it." CHEM study was a turning point in science

education that came in to effect as a response to Sputnik.American schools were changing the pace of science education inorder to keep up. From the information presented in this source,we were able to learn more about an important reform inAmerican education and utilize it on our website.

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"History." Darpa.mil. DARPA, n.d. Web.

After the launching of Sputnik on October 4, 1957, a vast amount

of programs and projects were initiated in order to counteract thisevent and keep the U.S. in technological competition with theUSSR. "The Soviet Unions launch of Sputnik showed that afundamental change was needed in Americas defense scienceand technology programs. DARPA was formed to meet this needand rejuvenated our defense technological capabilities." Thisprogram marked a turning point in the technological capabilities ofthe United States, which eventually led to several monumentaladvances such as the "creation of the internet," "the stealthfighter," and the "M16 Assault Rifle." This website was an excellentaddition to our research as it provided key details on the history of

the DARPA program, and how it shaped our country into theadvanced nation that it is today.

"PSSC: 50 Years Later." Compadre.org. N.p., n.d. Web.

"In 1956, MIT physics Professor Jerrold Zacharias formed PSSC, thePhysical Sciences Study Committee, and launched what becameAmerica's largest effort ever to reshape how physics was taught inhigh schools." Zacharias's success gained worldwide recognition inshort time, quickly launching him into fame as one of the mostimportant Physics reformers in regards to education. "By the early

1960s more than twenty percent of all high school teachers ofphysics were involved in this project." This website article allowedus to understand how the Sputnik Era caused Zacharias to form aturning point in education at that time, as well as how it affects ustoday.

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