Stress

Chapter 4:

Human AdjustmentJohn W. Santrock

McGraw-Hill © 2006 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

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Outline - Chapter 4

What is Stress?

Stress and Illness

Sources and Mediators of Stress

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

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Learning Goals - Chapter 4

1. Explain what stress is and describe its major components

2. Discuss the links between stress and illness

3. Identify key sources and buffers of stress

4. Characterize post-traumatic stress disorder

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WHAT IS STRESS?

Definition of Stress

General Adaptation Syndrome

Cognitive Appraisal

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Definition of Stress

Stress = response of individuals to stressors

Stressors = circumstances and events that threaten individuals and tax their coping abilities

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General Adaptation Syndrome

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) - Selye’s term for common effects on body when stressors persist

GAS consists of:–alarm

– resistance

–exhaustion

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General Adaptation Syndrome

Alarm Stage–Body’s resources are mobilized to prepare organism to deal

with threat

Resistance Stage–Body adapts to the continued presence of the stressor

Exhaustion Stage– If the threat and the body’s response continues, possible

irreversible damage to the body, or even death, may occur

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4-8Figure 4.1 Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome

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Pathways in Body’s Response to Stressors

Two main pathways are involved in the body’s response to stressors: –neuroendocrine-immune pathway

– sympathetic nervous system pathway

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4-10Figure 4.2 Two Biological

Pathways in Stress

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Cognitive Appraisal

Cognitive appraisal - Richard Lazarus’ term for individual’s interpretation of events in their lives, and their determination of whether they have the resources to effectively cope with the events

Cognitive appraisal consists of:–Primary appraisal (Is the stressful event harmful,

threatening, or challenging?)

–Secondary appraisal (What resources do I have to cope with the stressful event?)

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4-12Figure 4.3 Lazarus’ Cognitive Appraisal

View of Stress

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Review - Learning Goal 1

–What is stress?

–What is the general adaptation syndrome?

–How does cognitive appraisal influence the response to stress?

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STRESS AND ILLNESS

Stress and the Immune System

Stress and Cardiovascular Disease

Stress and Cancer

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Stress and the Immune System

Psychoneuroimmunology is the field that explores connections among psychological factors, the nervous system, and the immune system–Acute stressors can produce immunological changes in

healthy individuals

–Chronic stressors are associated with a decrease in immune system functioning

Positive social life and low stress are associated with increased ability to fight cancer

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Stress and Cardiovascular Disease

Chronic stress is associated with–high blood pressure–heart disease–early death

Emotional stress contributes to cardiovascular disease

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Stress and Cancer

Andersen believes stress and cancer are linked through their effects on:–quality of life

–behavioral factors

–biological pathways

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Review - Learning Goal 2

–What is psychoneuroimmunology, and what has it revealed about the immune system?

–How is stress linked with cardiovascular disease?

–What is the connection between stress and cancer?

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SOURCES AND MEDIATORS OF STRESS

Environmental Factors

Personality Factors

Work-Related Factors

Sociocultural Factors

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Environmental Factors

Environmental factors that can be sources of stress include:–significant life events (such as major changes)

–daily hassles (ongoing daily annoyances)

–conflict

–overload

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Life Events and Daily Hassles

People who experience clusters of major life events (loss of close relative, loss of job) tend to become ill

Daily hassles (ongoing daily annoyances) can also produce health-sapping stress

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Life Events and Daily Hassles

Hassles for college students include:–wasting time

–being lonely

–worrying about meeting high achievement standards

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Life Events and Daily Hassles

Daily uplifts of college students include:–having fun

– laughing

–going to movies

–getting along well with friends

– completing a task

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Conflict

Three types of conflict are:–Approach/approach conflict - conflict in which the

individual must choose between two attractive stimuli or circumstances (least stressful)

–Avoidance/Avoidance conflict - conflict in which the individual must choose between two unattractive stimuli or circumstances

–Approach/avoidance conflict - conflict involving a single stimulus or circumstance that has both positive and negative characteristics

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Overload

Daily hassles can result in overload, which can lead to burnout

Burnout = state of physical and emotional exhaustion that includes a hopeless feeling, chronic fatigue, and low energy

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4-26Adjustment Strategies

for Avoiding Burnout

1. Take inventory of what is causing stress

2. Pare down some of your commitments

3. Do things you enjoy

4. Recognize when to seek outside help

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Personality Factors - Type A / Type B

Type A behavior pattern = cluster of characteristics related to incidence of heart disease

Type A behavior pattern:–excessively competitive–hard-driven– impatient–hostile

Type B behavior pattern - relaxed and easygoing personality

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Personality Factors - Type A / Type B

Personality factors can either increase the chances that a person will experience stress or provide a buffer against stressors–Hostility is most consistently related to heart disease

–Hostile and angry persons appear to have an increased risk of suffering the effects of stress

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Adjustment Strategies For Reducing Anger

1. Wait when angry

2. Relax with deep breathing and imagery

3. Change the way you think

4. Solve problems that cause anger

5. Help others

6. Change your perspective

7. Join a self-help group

8. Seek counseling if anger is out of control

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Hardiness

Hardiness - personality style characterized by:– sense of commitment (rather than alienation)

– sense of control (rather than powerlessness)

–perception of problems as challenges (rather than threats)

The perception that one can control or reduce stressors is also a buffer

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Personal Control Over Stressful Events

A sense of personal control over stressful events has been related to:–emotional well-being

– successful coping with a stressful event

–behavior change that can promote good health

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Work-Related Stress

The stress level of workers increases when:– they have little control over their work

– job demands are high

– their jobs do not meet their expectations

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Sociocultural Factors

Sociocultural sources of stress include:–gender

–acculturation

–poverty

Gender Females are more likely to follow a tend-and-befriend

strategy than males

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Sociocultural Factors - Acculturation

Acculturative stress - negative consequences which result from contact between two distinctive cultural groups

People can adapt to cultural change through:–assimilation (fully adopt identity of larger society)– integration (move into larger culture but maintain distinctive

cultural identity)–separation (self-imposed withdrawal from larger culture)–marginalization (lose contact with both traditional society

and dominant society)

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Sociocultural Factors - Poverty

Poverty can cause considerable stress for individuals and families

Poverty is related to threatening and uncontrollable life events

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Review - Learning Goal 3

–What are some major environmental sources of stress?

–What role do personality characteristics play in stress?

–When is work most likely to be stressful?

–How do sociocultural factors influence stress?

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POST-TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER

Symptoms and Developmental Course of PTSD

Stressful Events and PTSD

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4-38Symptoms and Developmental

Course of PTSD

–periods of symptoms increase, followed by remission or periods of symptom decrease

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) = anxiety disorder that develops through exposure to traumatic events, severely oppressive situations, abuse, and natural and unnatural disasters

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Symptoms of PTSD

Symptoms of PTSD include:– flashbacks– constricted ability to feel emotions–excessive arousal–difficulties with memory and concentration– feelings of apprehension– impulsive outbursts of behavior

Symptoms may:– immediately follow the trauma–be delayed by months or even years

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Stressful Events and PTSD

Types of events that can trigger PTSD include:–combat and war-related traumas

–abuse (including abuse by a spouse, the sexual abuse of rape or incest, and emotional abuse)

–natural disasters (such as tornadoes, hurricanes, earthquakes, and fires)

–unnatural disasters (such as terrorist attacks)

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for Coping with a Terrorist Attack

1. Identify feelings you might be experiencing2. Remember you have overcome adversity in the past3. Talk to others about your fears4. Make an effort to maintain your usual routine5. Think positively6. Recognize that terrorist attacks create fears and uncertainty about the future7. Know our government is taking actions to combat terrorism and restore safety and security8. Limit exposure to media coverage

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Review - Learning Goal 4

–What are the symptoms and typical course of PTSD?

–What types of stressful events can trigger PTSD?