Neurobiology and

Communication.

Higher Human BiologyBathgate Academy.

Name

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The Nervous System

The nervous system:

1.

2.

3.

Motor responses are made by initiating muscular contractions or glandular secretions.

Give some examples below:

Divisions of the nervous system

1. The central nervous system (CNS) is made of the and .

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2. The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of the outside the brain and spinal cord.

3. The somatic nervous system (SNS) contains sensory and motor neurons. What do these control?

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4. The autonomic nervous system (ANS) maintains homeostatic control. Sensory and motor neurons carry involuntary impulses to smooth muscle, cardiac muscle and glands.

The ANS is divided into two further sections:a) The parasympathetic nervous systemb) The sympathetic nervous system.

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The sympathetic nervous system is associated with the ‘fight or flight’ response.The parasympathetic nervous system is associated with the ‘rest and digest’ responses.

Both have an effect on heart rate, breathing rate, peristalsis and intestinal secretions. Why are their actions called antagonistic actions?

Summarise the divisions of the nervous system and their functions below.

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The Brain.

Parts of the brainThe human brain is organized into three interconnected layers: 1. 2.3.

1. The Central core.

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2. The Limbic system.

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3. The cerebral cortex.

The corpus callosum

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Perception

This is the process by which the brain analyses and makes sense of incoming sensory information. Perception allows us to segregate objects from one another and their background, recognize what they are and to judge their distance from us.

Segregation of objects

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Perception of distance.a)Visual cues such as relative size, superimpositions and relative height in field.

b) Binocular disparity in judging distance.

c) Perceptual constancy as objects become nearer and the viewing of angle changes.

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RecognitionShape recognition –

The influence of perceptual set -

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Memory

Memory is the storage, retention and retrieval of information including past experiences, knowledge and thoughts. All information entering the brain passes through the sensory memory and enters short term memory. Information is then transferred to long term memory or discarded.

Sensory memory

Short term memory (STM)

Long term memory (LTM)

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Memory summary

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Location of Memory in the brain.

What types of memory are stored in the region of the cortex where the sensory information is first received and encoded?

What type of memory is associated with long term modifications of the motor cortex?

What type of memory is located in the limbic system?

What type of memory involves links between the cortex and limbic system?

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The cells of the nervous system.There are two types of cells that are important in the nervous system: neurons and glial cells.

NeuronsNeurons receive and transmit electrical signals (impulses).

There are three types of neurons:1. 2. 3.

Label the diagram of a neuron below:

Structure FunctionCell body

Dendrites

Axons

The myelin sheath

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What is myelination?

When does myelination occur?

Certain diseases destroy the myelin sheath causing a loss of co-ordination.For example:

Glial cells

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What do glial cells do?

1.

2.

3.

Neurotransmitters.

Neurotransmitters relay messages from nerve to nerve within and out with the brain.

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Neurons connect with other neurons, muscle fibres and endocrine glands at a synaptic cleft.

What is the role of neurotransmitters at the synaptic cleft?

How neurotransmitters move across the synaptic cleft:

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Neurotransmitters must be removed from the synaptic cleft to prevent continuous stimulation of post-synaptic neurons. They are removed by two mechanisms:1.

2.

Weak stimuli arise from insufficient secretion of neurotransmitters. Summation of a series of weak stimuli can trigger enough neurotransmitter to fire an impulse.

Neural pathways.

Converging neural pathways:

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Diverging neural pathways:

Reverberating neural pathways:

Plasticity:

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Neurotransmitters, mood and behaviour .

Endorphins

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The reward pathway

Neurotransmitter disorders.

Many drugs used to treat these disorders are similar to neurotransmitters.

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Describe the action of the following types of drugs:

Agonists –

Antagonists –

Other drugs inhibit the enzymes which degrade neurotransmitters or inhibit re-uptake.

Recreational drugs.Many recreational drugs affect neurotransmission in the reward circuit of the brain. Changes in the neurochemistry alter mood, cognition, perception and behaviour.

Recreational drugs may:1.Stimulate the release of neurotransmitter.Example(s):

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2. Imitate their action (agonists):Example(s):

3. Block their binding (antagonists):Example(s)

4.Inhibit their re-uptake/enzymatic degradation:Example(s)

Drug addiction and tolerance.

Sensitisation and desensitisation are thought to underlie drug addiction and tolerance.

Sensitisation –

Desensitisation –

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Communication and social behaviour.

Infant attachment

Observing children between 12 and 18months of age allowed psychologists to form theories about other types of attachment. The observations were based on ‘the strange situation’ which is outlined below:

Parent and child are alone in the room

Child explores the room without parental participation.

Stranger enters the room, talks to the parent and approaches the child.

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Parent quietly leaves the room.

Parent then returns and comforts the child.

The strange situation allowed the following theories of attachment to be formed:Secure attachment.Characteristics in children –

Characteristics in adults –

Insecure attachment (responses often of detachment and anger and can be inconsistent).

Characteristics in children –

Characteristics in adults -

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Infants that form secure attachments are more likely to investigate their immediate environment helping the development of cognitive abilities.Growing up.

Humans have a long period of dependency on adults providing time for socialization and learning to occur. As children develop, different methods of control can influence social competence.

Authoritative control (providing direction) generally results in greater social competence than permissive control.

Describe the different types of control below:

1. Authoritative

2. Permissive

The effect of communication

Non-verbal communication:

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Verbal communication:

The effect of experience.

Learning - a change in behaviour as a result of experience.

Practice – the repeated use of a motor skill results in a motor pathway being established.

Imitation – a great deal of behaviour is learned by observing and imitating the behaviour of others.

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Trial and error learning:

Reinforcement –

Shaping –

Generalization and discrimination –

The effect of group behaviour and social influence.

Social facilitation –

Deindividuation –

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How to change beliefs?

Internalisation –

Identification –

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