Rhetoric

By Aristotle

Written 350 B.C.E

Translated by W. Rhys Roberts

Table of Contents

Book III

Part1Inmakingaspeechonemuststudythreepoints:first,themeansofproducingpersuasion;second,thestyle,orlanguage,tobeused;third,theproperarrangementofthevariouspartsofthespeech.Wehavealreadyspecifiedthesourcesofpersuasion.Wehaveshownthatthesearethreeinnumber;whattheyare;andwhythereareonlythesethree:forwehaveshownthatpersuasionmustineverycasebeeffectedeither(1)byworkingontheemotionsofthejudgesthemselves,(2)bygivingthemtherightimpressionofthespeakers'character,or(3)byprovingthetruthofthestatementsmade.Enthymemesalsohavebeendescribed,andthesourcesfromwhichtheyshouldbederived;therebeingbothspecialandgenerallinesofargumentforenthymemes.Ournextsubjectwillbethestyleofexpression.Foritisnotenoughtoknowwhatweoughttosay;wemustalsosayitasweought;muchhelpisthusaffordedtowardsproducingtherightimpressionofaspeech.Thefirstquestiontoreceiveattentionwasnaturallytheonethatcomesfirstnaturally-howpersuasioncanbeproducedfromthefactsthemselves.Thesecondishowtosetthesefactsoutinlanguage.Athirdwouldbethepropermethodofdelivery;thisisathingthataffectsthesuccessofaspeechgreatly;buthithertothesubjecthasbeenneglected.Indeed,itwaslongbeforeitfoundawayintotheartsoftragicdramaandepicrecitation:atfirstpoetsactedtheirtragediesthemselves.Itisplainthatdeliveryhasjustasmuchtodowithoratoryaswithpoetry.(Inconnexionwithpoetry,ithasbeenstudiedbyGlauconofTeosamongothers.)Itis,essentially,amatteroftherightmanagementofthevoicetoexpressthevariousemotions-ofspeakingloudly,softly,orbetweenthetwo;ofhigh,low,orintermediatepitch;ofthevariousrhythmsthatsuitvarioussubjects.Thesearethethreethings-volumeofsound,modulationofpitch,andrhythm-thataspeakerbearsinmind.Itisthosewhodobeartheminmindwhousuallywinprizesinthedramaticcontests;andjustasindramatheactorsnowcountformorethanthepoets,soitisinthecontestsofpubliclife,owingtothedefectsofourpoliticalinstitutions.Nosystematictreatiseupontherulesofdeliveryhasyetbeencomposed;indeed,eventhestudyoflanguagemadenoprogresstilllateintheday.Besides,deliveryis-veryproperly-notregardedasanelevatedsubjectofINQUIRY .Still,thewholebusinessofrhetoricbeingconcernedwithappearances,wemustpayattentiontothesubjectofdelivery,unworthythoughitis,becausewecannotdowithoutit.Therightthinginspeakingreallyisthatweshouldbesatisfiednottoannoyourhearers,withouttryingtodelightthem:weoughtinfairnesstofightourcasewithnohelpbeyondthebarefacts:nothing,therefore,shouldmatterexcepttheproofofthosefacts.Still,ashasbeenalreadysaid,otherthingsaffecttheresultconsiderably,owingtothedefectsofourhearers.Theartsoflanguagecannothelp

havingasmallbutrealimportance,whateveritiswehavetoexpoundtoothers:thewayinwhichathingissaiddoesaffectitsintelligibility.Not,however,somuchimportanceaspeoplethink.Allsuchartsarefancifulandmeanttocharmthehearer.Nobodyusesfinelanguagewhenteachinggeometry.Whentheprinciplesofdeliveryhavebeenworkedout,theywillproducethesameeffectasonthestage.Butonlyveryslightattemptstodealwiththemhavebeenmadeandbyafewpeople,asbyThrasymachusinhis'AppealstoPity'.Dramaticabilityisanaturalgift,andcanhardlybesystematicallytaught.Theprinciplesofgooddictioncanbesotaught,andthereforewehavemenofabilityinthisdirectiontoo,whowinprizesintheirturn,aswellasthosespeakerswhoexcelindelivery-speechesofthewrittenorliterarykindowemoreoftheireffecttotheirdirectionthantotheirthought.Itwasnaturallythepoetswhofirstsetthemovementgoing;forwordsrepresentthings,andtheyhadalsothehumanvoiceattheirdisposal,whichofallourorganscanbestrepresentotherthings.Thustheartsofrecitationandactingwereformed,andothersaswell.Nowitwasbecausepoetsseemedtowinfamethroughtheirfinelanguagewhentheirthoughtsweresimpleenough,thatthelanguageoforatoricalproseatfirsttookapoeticalcolour,e.g.thatofGorgias.Evennowmostuneducatedpeoplethinkthatpoeticallanguagemakesthefinestdiscourses.Thatisnottrue:thelanguageofproseisdistinctfromthatofpoetry.Thisisshownbythestateofthingsto-day,wheneventhelanguageoftragedyhasaltereditscharacter.Justasiambicswereadopted,insteadoftetrameters,becausetheyarethemostprose-likeofallmetres,sotragedyhasgivenupallthosewords,notusedinordinarytalk,whichdecoratedtheearlydramaandarestillusedbythewritersofhexameterpoems.Itisthereforeridiculoustoimitateapoeticalmannerwhichthepoetsthemselveshavedropped;anditisnowplainthatwehavenottotreatindetailthewholequestionofstyle,butmayconfineourselvestothatpartofitwhichconcernsourpresentsubject,rhetoric.Theother--thepoetical--partofithasbeendiscussedinthetreatiseontheArtofPoetry.Part2Wemay,then,startfromtheobservationstheremade,includingthedefinitionofstyle.Styletobegoodmustbeclear,asisprovedbythefactthatspeechwhichfailstoconveyaplainmeaningwillfailtodojustwhatspeechhastodo.Itmustalsobeappropriate,avoidingbothmeannessandundueelevation;poeticallanguageiscertainlyfreefrommeanness,butitisnotappropriatetoprose.Clearnessissecuredbyusingthewords(nounsandverbsalike)thatarecurrentandordinary.Freedomfrommeanness,andpositiveadornmenttoo,aresecuredbyusingtheotherwordsmentionedintheArtofPoetry.Suchvariationfromwhatisusualmakesthelanguageappearmorestately.Peopledonotfeeltowardsstrangersastheydotowardstheirowncountrymen,andthesamethingistrueoftheirfeelingforlanguage.Itisthereforewelltogivetoeverydayspeechanunfamiliarair:peoplelikewhatstrikesthem,andarestruckbywhatisoutoftheway.Inversesucheffectsarecommon,andtheretheyarefitting:thepersonsandthingstherespokenofarecomparativelyremotefromordinarylife.Inprosepassagestheyarefarlessoftenfittingbecausethesubject-matterislessexalted.Eveninpoetry,itisnotquiteappropriatethatfinelanguageshouldbeusedbyaslaveoraveryyoungman,oraboutverytrivialsubjects:eveninpoetrythestyle,tobeappropriate,mustsometimesbetoneddown,thoughatothertimesheightened.Wecannowseethatawritermustdisguisehisartandgivetheimpressionofspeakingnaturallyandnotartificially.Naturalnessispersuasive,artificialityisthecontrary;forourhearersareprejudicedandthinkwehavesomedesignagainstthem,as

ifweweremixingtheirwinesforthem.ItislikethedifferencebetweenthequalityofTheodorus'voiceandthevoicesofallotheractors:hisreallyseemstobethatofthecharacterwhoisspeaking,theirsdonot.Wecanhideourpurposesuccessfullybytakingthesinglewordsofourcompositionfromthespeechofordinarylife.ThisisdoneinpoetrybyEuripides,whowasthefirsttoshowthewaytohissuccessors.Languageiscomposedofnounsandverbs.NounsareofthevariouskindsconsideredinthetreatiseonPoetry.Strangewords,compoundwords,andinventedwordsmustbeusedsparinglyandonfewoccasions:onwhatoccasionsweshallstatelater.Thereasonforthisrestrictionhasbeenalreadyindicated:theydepartfromwhatissuitable,inthedirectionofexcess.Inthelanguageofprose,besidestheregularandpropertermsforthings,metaphoricaltermsonlycanbeusedwithadvantage.Thiswegatherfromthefactthatthesetwoclassesofterms,theproperorregularandthemetaphorical-theseandnoothers-areusedbyeverybodyinconversation.Wecannowseethatagoodwritercanproduceastylethatisdistinguishedwithoutbeingobtrusive,andisatthesametimeclear,thussatisfyingourdefinitionofgoodoratoricalprose.Wordsofambiguousmeaningarechieflyusefultoenablethesophisttomisleadhishearers.Synonymsareusefultothepoet,bywhichImeanwordswhoseordinarymeaningisthesame,e.g.'porheueseai'(advancing)and'badizein'(proceeding);thesetwoareordinarywordsandhavethesamemeaning.IntheArtofPoetry,aswehavealreadysaid,willbefounddefinitionsofthesekindsofwords;aclassificationofMetaphors;andmentionofthefactthatmetaphorisofgreatvaluebothinpoetryandinprose.Prose-writersmust,however,payspeciallycarefulattentiontometaphor,becausetheirotherresourcesarescantierthanthoseofpoets.Metaphor,moreover,givesstyleclearness,charm,anddistinctionasnothingelsecan:anditisnotathingwhoseusecanbetaughtbyonemantoanother.Metaphors,likeepithets,mustbefitting,whichmeansthattheymustfairlycorrespondtothethingsignified:failingthis,theirinappropriatenesswillbeconspicuous:thewantofharmonybetweentwothingsisemphasizedbytheirbeingplacedsidebyside.Itislikehavingtoaskourselveswhatdresswillsuitanoldman;certainlynotthecrimsoncloakthatsuitsayoungman.Andifyouwishtopayacompliment,youmusttakeyourmetaphorfromsomethingbetterinthesameline;iftodisparage,fromsomethingworse.Toillustratemymeaning:sinceoppositesareinthesameclass,youdowhatIhavesuggestedifyousaythatamanwhobegs'prays',andamanwhoprays'begs';forprayingandbeggingarebothvarietiesofasking.SoIphicratescalledCalliasa'mendicantpriest'insteadofa'torch-bearer',andCalliasrepliedthatIphicratesmustbeuninitiatedorhewouldhavecalledhimnota'mendicantpriest'buta'torch-bearer'.Botharereligioustitles,butoneishonourableandtheotherisnot.Again,somebodycallsactors'hangers-onofDionysus',buttheycallthemselves'artists':eachofthesetermsisametaphor,theoneintendedtothrowdirtattheactor,theothertodignifyhim.Andpiratesnowcallthemselves'purveyors'.Wecanthuscallacrimeamistake,oramistakeacrime.Wecansaythatathief'took'athing,orthathe'plundered'hisvictim.AnexpressionlikethatofEuripides'Telephus,"Kingoftheoar,onMysia'scoasthelanded,"isinappropriate;theword'king'goesbeyondthedignityofthesubject,andsotheartisnotconcealed.Ametaphormaybeamissbecausetheverysyllablesofthewordsconveyingitfailtoindicatesweetnessofvocalutterance.ThusDionysiustheBrazeninhiselegiescallspoetry'Calliope'sscreech'.Poetryandscreechingareboth,tobesure,vocalutterances.Butthemetaphorisbad,becausethesoundsof'screeching',unlikethoseofpoetry,arediscordantandunmeaning.Further,inusingmetaphorstogivenamestonamelessthings,

wemustdrawthemnotfromremotebutfromkindredandsimilarthings,sothatthekinshipisclearlyperceivedassoonasthewordsaresaid.Thusinthecelebratedriddle"Imarkedhowamangluedbronzewithfiretoanotherman'sbody,"theprocessisnameless;butbothitandgluingareakindofapplication,andthatiswhytheapplicationofthecupping-glassisherecalleda'gluing'.Goodriddlesdo,ingeneral,provideuswithsatisfactorymetaphors:formetaphorsimplyriddles,andthereforeagoodriddlecanfurnishagoodmetaphor.Further,thematerialsofmetaphorsmustbebeautiful;andthebeauty,liketheugliness,ofallwordsmay,asLicymniussays,lieintheirsoundorintheirmeaning.Further,thereisathirdconsideration-onethatupsetsthefallaciousargumentofthesophistBryson,thatthereisnosuchthingasfoullanguage,becauseinwhateverwordsyouputagiventhingyourmeaningisthesame.Thisisuntrue.Onetermmaydescribeathingmoretrulythananother,maybemorelikeit,andsetitmoreintimatelybeforeoureyes.Besides,twodifferentwordswillrepresentathingintwodifferentlights;soonthisgroundalsoonetermmustbeheldfairerorfoulerthananother.Forbothoftwotermswillindicatewhatisfair,orwhatisfoul,butnotsimplytheirfairnessortheirfoulness,orifso,atanyratenotinanequaldegree.Thematerialsofmetaphormustbebeautifultotheear,totheunderstanding,totheeyeorsomeotherphysicalsense.Itisbetter,forinstance,tosay'rosy-fingeredmorn',than'crimson-fingered'or,worsestill,'red-fingeredmorn'.Theepithetsthatweapply,too,mayhaveabadanduglyaspect,aswhenOrestesiscalleda'mother-slayer';orabetterone,aswhenheiscalledhis'father'savenger'.Simonides,whenthevictorinthemule-raceofferedhimasmallfee,refusedtowritehimanode,because,hesaid,itwassounpleasanttowriteodestohalf-asses:butonreceivinganadequatefee,hewrote"Hailtoyou,daughtersofstorm-footedsteeds?"thoughofcoursetheyweredaughtersofassestoo.Thesameeffectisattainedbytheuseofdiminutives,whichmakeabadthinglessbadandagoodthinglessgood.Take,forinstance,thebanterofAristophanesintheBabylonianswhereheuses'goldlet'for'gold','cloaklet'for'cloak','scoffiet'for'scoff,and'plaguelet'.Butalikeinusingepithetsandinusingdiminutiveswemustbewaryandmustobservethemean.Part3Badtasteinlanguagemaytakeanyoffourforms:(1)Themisuseofcompoundwords.Lycophron,forinstance,talksofthe'manyvisagedheaven'abovethe'giant-crestedearth',andagainthe'strait-pathedshore';andGorgiasofthe'pauper-poetflatterer'and'oath-breakingandover-oath-keeping'.Alcidamasusessuchexpressionsas'thesoulfillingwithrageandfacebecomingflame-flushed',and'hethoughttheirenthusiasmwouldbeissue-fraught'and'issue-fraughthemadethepersuasionofhiswords',and'sombre-huedisthefloorofthesea'.Thewayallthesewordsarecompoundedmakesthem,wefeel,fitforverseonly.This,then,isoneforminwhichbadtasteisshown.(2)Anotheristheemploymentofstrangewords.Forinstance,Lycophrontalksof'theprodigiousXerxes'and'spoliativeSciron';Alcidamasof'atoyforpoetry'and'thewitlessnessofnature',andsays'whettedwiththeunmitigatedtemperofhisspirit'.(3)Athirdformistheuseoflong,unseasonable,orfrequentepithets.Itisappropriate

enoughforapoettotalkof'whitemilk',inprosesuchepithetsaresometimeslackinginappropriatenessor,whenspreadtoothickly,plainlyrevealtheauthorturninghisproseintopoetry.Ofcoursewemustusesomeepithets,sincetheyliftourstyleabovetheusuallevelandgiveitanairofdistinction.Butwemustaimattheduemean,ortheresultwillbeworsethanifwetooknotroubleatall;weshallgetsomethingactuallybadinsteadofsomethingmerelynotgood.ThatiswhytheepithetsofAlcidamasseemsotasteless;hedoesnotusethemastheseasoningofthemeat,butasthemeatitself,sonumerousandswollenandaggressivearethey.Forinstance,hedoesnotsay'sweat',but'themoistsweat';not'totheIsthmiangames',but'totheworld-concourseoftheIsthmiangames';not'laws',but'thelawsthataremonarchsofstates';not'atarun',but'hisheartimpellinghimtospeedoffoot';not'aschooloftheMuses',but'Nature'sschooloftheMuseshadheinherited';andso'frowningcareofheart',and'achiever'notof'popularity'butof'universalpopularity',and'dispenserofpleasuretohisaudience',and'heconcealedit'not'withboughs'but'withboughsoftheforesttrees',and'heclothed'not'hisbody'but'hisbody'snakedness',and'hissoul'sdesirewascounterimitative'(this'satoneandthesametimeacompoundandanepithet,sothatitseemsapoet'seffort),and'soextravaganttheexcessofhiswickedness'.Wethusseehowtheinappropriatenessofsuchpoeticallanguageimportsabsurdityandtastelessnessintospeeches,aswellastheobscuritythatcomesfromallthisverbosity-forwhenthesenseisplain,youonlyobscureandspoilitsclearnessbypilingupwords.Theordinaryuseofcompoundwordsiswherethereisnotermforathingandsomecompoundcanbeeasilyformed,like'pastime'(chronotribein);butifthisismuchdone,theprosecharacterdisappearsentirely.Wenowseewhythelanguageofcompoundsisjustthethingforwritersofdithyrambs,wholovesonorousnoises;strangewordsforwritersofepicpoetry,whichisaproudandstatelyaffair;andmetaphorforiambicverse,themetrewhich(ashasbeenalready'said)iswidelyusedto-day.(4)Thereremainsthefourthregioninwhichbadtastemaybeshown,metaphor.Metaphorslikeotherthingsmaybeinappropriate.Somearesobecausetheyareridiculous;theyareindeedusedbycomicaswellastragicpoets.Othersaretoograndandtheatrical;andthese,iftheyarefar-fetched,mayalsobeobscure.Forinstance,Gorgiastalksof'eventsthataregreenandfullofsap',andsays'foulwasthedeedyousowedandeviltheharvestyoureaped'.Thatistoomuchlikepoetry.Alcidamas,again,calledphilosophy'afortressthatthreatensthepoweroflaw',andtheOdyssey'agoodlylooking-glassofhumanlife','talkedabout'offeringnosuchtoytopoetry':alltheseexpressionsfail,forthereasonsgiven,tocarrythehearerwiththem.TheaddressofGorgiastotheswallow,whenshehadletherdroppingsfallonhimassheflewoverhead,isinthebesttragicmanner.Hesaid,'Nay,shame,OPhilomela'.Consideringherasabird,youcouldnotcallheractshameful;consideringherasagirl,youcould;andsoitwasagoodgibetoaddressheraswhatshewasonceandnotaswhatsheis.Part4TheSimilealsoisametaphor;thedifferenceisbutslight.WhenthepoetsaysofAchillesthathe"Leaptonthefoeasalion,"thisisasimile;whenhesaysofhim'thelionleapt',itisametaphor-here,sincebotharecourageous,hehastransferredtoAchillesthenameof'lion'.Similesareusefulinproseas

wellasinverse;butnotoften,sincetheyareofthenatureofpoetry.Theyaretobeemployedjustasmetaphorsareemployed,sincetheyarereallythesamethingexceptforthedifferencementioned.Thefollowingareexamplesofsimiles.AndrotionsaidofIdrieusthathewaslikeaterrierletoffthechain,thatfliesatyouandbitesyou-Idrieustoowassavagenowthathewasletoutofhischains.TheodamascomparedArchidamustoanEuxenuswhocouldnotdogeometry-aproportionalsimile,implyingthatEuxenusisanArchidamuswhocandogeometry.InPlato'sRepublicthosewhostripthedeadarecomparedtocurswhichbitethestonesthrownatthembutdonottouchthethrower,andthereisthesimileabouttheAthenianpeople,whoarecomparedtoaship'scaptainwhoisstrongbutalittledeaf;andtheoneaboutpoets'verses,whicharelikenedtopersonswholackbeautybutpossessyouthfulfreshness-whenthefreshnesshasfadedthecharmperishes,andsowithverseswhenbrokenupintoprose.PericlescomparedtheSamianstochildrenwhotaketheirpapbutgooncrying;andtheBoeotianstoholm-oaks,becausetheywereruiningoneanotherbycivilwarsjustasoneoakcausesanotheroak'sfall.DemosthenessaidthattheAthenianpeoplewerelikesea-sickmenonboardship.Again,Demosthenescomparedthepoliticaloratorstonurseswhoswallowthebitoffoodthemselvesandthensmearthechildren'slipswiththespittle.AntisthenescomparedtheleanCephisodotustofrankincense,becauseitwashisconsumptionthatgaveonepleasure.Alltheseideasmaybeexpressedeitherassimilesorasmetaphors;thosewhichsucceedasmetaphorswillobviouslydowellalsoassimiles,andsimiles,withtheexplanationomitted,willappearasmetaphors.Buttheproportionalmetaphormustalwaysapplyreciprocallytoeitherofitsco-ordinateterms.Forinstance,ifadrinking-bowlistheshieldofDionysus,ashieldmayfittinglybecalledthedrinking-bowlofAres.Part5Such,then,aretheingredientsofwhichspeechiscomposed.Thefoundationofgoodstyleiscorrectnessoflanguage,whichfallsunderfiveheads.(1)First,theproperuseofconnectingwords,andthearrangementoftheminthenaturalsequencewhichsomeofthemrequire.Forinstance,theconnective'men'(e.g.egomen)requiresthecorrelativede(e.g.ode).Theansweringwordmustbebroughtinbeforethefirsthasbeenforgotten,andnotbewidelyseparatedfromit;nor,exceptinthefewcaseswherethisisappropriate,isanotherconnectivetobeintroducedbeforetheonerequired.Considerthesentence,'Butassoonashetoldme(forCleonhadcomebeggingandpraying),tookthemalongandsetout.'Inthissentencemanyconnectingwordsareinsertedinfrontoftheonerequiredtocompletethesense;andifthereisalongintervalbefore'setout',theresultisobscurity.Onemerit,then,ofgoodstyleliesintherightuseofconnectingwords.(2)Thesecondliesincallingthingsbytheirownspecialnamesandnotbyvaguegeneralones.(3)Thethirdistoavoidambiguities;unless,indeed,youdefinitelydesiretobeambiguous,asthosedowhohavenothingtosaybutarepretendingtomeansomething.Suchpeopleareapttoputthatsortofthingintoverse.Empedocles,forinstance,byhislongcircumlocutionsimposesonhishearers;theseareaffectedinthesamewayasmostpeoplearewhentheylistentodiviners,whoseambiguousutterancesarereceivedwithnodsofacquiescence-"CroesusbycrossingtheHalyswillruinamightyrealm."Divinersusethesevaguegeneralitiesaboutthematterinhandbecausetheirpredictionsare

thus,asarule,lesslikelytobefalsified.Wearemorelikelytoberight,inthegameof'oddandeven',ifwesimplyguess'even'or'odd'thanifweguessattheactualnumber;andtheoracle-mongerismorelikelytoberightifhesimplysaysthatathingwillhappenthanifhesayswhenitwillhappen,andthereforeherefusestoaddadefinitedate.Alltheseambiguitieshavethesamesortofeffect,andaretobeavoidedunlesswehavesomesuchobjectasthatmentioned.(4)AfourthruleistoobserveProtagoras'classificationofnounsintomale,female,andinanimate;forthesedistinctionsalsomustbecorrectlygiven.'Uponherarrivalshesaidhersayanddeparted(edelthousakaidialechtheisaocheto).'(5)Afifthruleistoexpressplurality,fewness,andunitybythecorrectwording,e.g.'Havingcome,theystruckme(oidelthontesetuptonme).'Itisageneralrulethatawrittencompositionshouldbeeasytoreadandthereforeeasytodeliver.Thiscannotbesowheretherearemanyconnectingwordsorclauses,orwherepunctuationishard,asinthewritingsofHeracleitus.TopunctuateHeracleitusisnoeasytask,becauseweoftencannottellwhetheraparticularwordbelongstowhatprecedesorwhatfollowsit.Thus,attheoutsetofhistreatisehesays,'Thoughthistruthisalwaysmenunderstanditnot',whereitisnotclearwithwhichofthetwoclausestheword'always'shouldbejoinedbythepunctuation.Further,thefollowingfactleadstosolecism,viz.thatthesentencedoesnotworkoutproperlyifyouannextotwotermsathirdwhichdoesnotsuitthemboth.Thuseither'sound'or'colour'willfailtoworkoutproperlywithsomeverbs:'perceive'willapplytoboth,'see'willnot.Obscurityisalsocausedif,whenyouintendtoinsertanumberofdetails,youdonotfirstmakeyourmeaningclear;forinstance,ifyousay,'Imeant,aftertellinghimthis,thatandtheotherthing,tosetout',ratherthansomethingofthiskind'Imeanttosetoutaftertellinghim;thenthis,that,andtheotherthingoccurred.'Part6Thefollowingsuggestionswillhelptogiveyourlanguageimpressiveness.(1)Describeathinginsteadofnamingit:donotsay'circle',but'thatsurfacewhichextendsequallyfromthemiddleeveryway'.Toachieveconciseness,dotheopposite-putthenameinsteadofthedescription.Whenmentioninganythinguglyorunseemly,useitsnameifitisthedescriptionthatisugly,anddescribeitifitisthenamethatisugly.(2)Representthingswiththehelpofmetaphorsandepithets,beingcarefultoavoidpoeticaleffects.(3)Usepluralforsingular,asinpoetry,whereonefinds"UntohavensAchaean,"thoughonlyonehavenismeant,and"Herearemyletter'smany-leavedfolds."(4)Donotbrackettwowordsunderonearticle,butputonearticlewitheach;e.g.'thatwifeofours.'Thereversetosecureconciseness;e.g.'ourwife.'Useplentyofconnectingwords;conversely,tosecureconciseness,dispensewithconnectives,whilestillpreservingconnexion;e.g.'havinggoneandspoken',and'havinggone,Ispoke',respectively.(6)AndthepracticeofAntimachus,too,isuseful-todescribeathingbymentioningattributesitdoesnotpossess;ashedoesintalkingofTeumessus

"Thereisalittlewind-sweptknoll..."Asubjectcanbedevelopedindefinitelyalongtheselines.Youmayapplythismethodoftreatmentbynegationeithertogoodortobadqualities,accordingtowhichyoursubjectrequires.Itisfromthissourcethatthepoetsdrawexpressionssuchasthe'stringless'or'lyreless'melody,thusformingepithetsoutofnegations.Thisdeviceispopularinproportionalmetaphors,aswhenthetrumpet'snoteiscalled'alyrelessmelody'.Part7Yourlanguagewillbeappropriateifitexpressesemotionandcharacter,andifitcorrespondstoitssubject.'Correspondencetosubject'meansthatwemustneitherspeakcasuallyaboutweightymatters,norsolemnlyabouttrivialones;normustweaddornamentalepithetstocommonplacenouns,ortheeffectwillbecomic,asintheworksofCleophon,whocanusephrasesasabsurdas'Oqueenlyfig-tree'.Toexpressemotion,youwillemploythelanguageofangerinspeakingofoutrage;thelanguageofdisgustanddiscreetreluctancetoutterawordwhenspeakingofimpietyorfoulness;thelanguageofexultationforataleofglory,andthatofhumiliationforataleofandsoinallothercases.Thisaptnessoflanguageisonethingthatmakespeoplebelieveinthetruthofyourstory:theirmindsdrawthefalseconclusionthatyouaretobetrustedfromthefactthatothersbehaveasyoudowhenthingsareasyoudescribethem;andthereforetheytakeyourstorytobetrue,whetheritissoornot.Besides,anemotionalspeakeralwaysmakeshisaudiencefeelwithhim,evenwhenthereisnothinginhisarguments;whichiswhymanyspeakerstrytooverwhelmtheiraudiencebymerenoise.Furthermore,thiswayofprovingyourstorybydisplayingthesesignsofitsgenuinenessexpressesyourpersonalcharacter.Eachclassofmen,eachtypeofdisposition,willhaveitsownappropriatewayoflettingthetruthappear.Under'class'Iincludedifferencesofage,asboy,man,oroldman;ofsex,asmanorwoman;ofnationality,asSpartanorThessalian.By'dispositions'Iheremeanthosedispositionsonlywhichdeterminethecharacterofaman'sforitisnoteverydispositionthatdoesthis.If,then,aspeakerusestheverywordswhichareinkeepingwithaparticulardisposition,hewillreproducethecorrespondingcharacter;forarusticandaneducatedmanwillnotsaythesamethingsnorspeakinthesameway.Again,someimpressionismadeuponanaudiencebyadevicewhichspeech-writersemploytonauseousexcess,whentheysay'Whodoesnotknowthis?'or'Itisknowntoeverybody.'Thehearerisashamedofhisignorance,andagreeswiththespeaker,soastohaveashareoftheknowledgethateverybodyelsepossesses.Allthevariationsoforatoricalstylearecapableofbeingusedinseasonoroutofseason.Thebestwaytocounteractanyexaggerationisthewell-worndevicebywhichthespeakerputsinsomecriticismofhimself;forthenpeoplefeelitmustbeallrightforhimtotalkthus,sincehecertainlyknowswhatheisdoing.Further,itisbetternottohaveeverythingalwaysjustcorrespondingtoeverythingelse-yourhearerswillseethroughyoulesseasilythus.Imeanforinstance,ifyourwordsareharsh,youshouldnotextendthisharshnesstoyourvoiceandyourcountenanceandhaveeverythingelseinkeeping.Ifyoudo,theartificialcharacterofeachdetailbecomesapparent;whereasifyouadoptonedeviceandnotanother,youareusingartallthesameandyetnobodynoticesit.(Tobesure,ifmildsentimentsareexpressedinharshtonesandharshsentimentsinmildtones,youbecomecomparativelyunconvincing.)Compoundwords,fairlyplentifulepithets,andstrangewordsbestsuitanemotionalspeech.Weforgiveanangrymanfortalkingaboutawrongas

'heaven-high'or'colossal';andweexcusesuchlanguagewhenthespeakerhashishearersalreadyinhishandsandhasstirredthemdeeplyeitherbypraiseorblameorangeroraffection,asIsocrates,forinstance,doesattheendofhisPanegyric,withhis'nameandfame'and'inthattheybrooked'.Mendospeakinthisstrainwhentheyaredeeplystirred,andso,oncetheaudienceisinalikestateoffeeling,approvalofcoursefollows.Thisiswhysuchlanguageisfittinginpoetry,whichisaninspiredthing.Thislanguage,then,shouldbeusedeitherunderstressofemotion,orironically,afterthemannerofGorgiasandofthepassagesinthePhaedrus.Part8Theformofaprosecompositionshouldbeneithermetricalnordestituteofrhythm.Themetricalformdestroysthehearer'strustbyitsartificialappearance,andatthesametimeitdivertshisattention,makinghimwatchformetricalrecurrences,justaschildrencatchuptheherald'squestion,'Whomdoesthefreedmanchooseashisadvocate?',withtheanswer'Cleon!'Ontheotherhand,unrhythmicallanguageistoounlimited;wedonotwantthelimitationsofmetre,butsomelimitationwemusthave,ortheeffectwillbevagueandunsatisfactory.Nowitisnumberthatlimitsallthings;anditisthenumericallimitationoftheformsofacompositionthatconstitutesrhythm,ofwhichmetresaredefinitesections.Prose,then,istoberhythmical,butnotmetrical,oritwillbecomenotprosebutverse.Itshouldnotevenhavetoopreciseaproserhythm,andthereforeshouldonlyberhythmicaltoacertainextent.Ofthevariousrhythms,theheroichasdignity,butlacksthetonesofthespokenlanguage.Theiambicistheverylanguageofordinarypeople,sothatincommontalkiambiclinesoccuroftenerthananyothers:butinaspeechweneeddignityandthepoweroftakingtheheareroutofhisordinaryself.Thetrocheeistoomuchakintowilddancing:wecanseethisintetrameterverse,whichisoneofthetrochaicrhythms.Thereremainsthepaean,whichspeakersbegantouseinthetimeofThrasymachus,thoughtheyhadthennonametogiveit.Thepaeanisathirdclassofrhythm,closelyakintoboththetwoalreadymentioned;ithasinittheratioofthreetotwo,whereastheothertwokindshavetheratioofonetoone,andtwotoonerespectively.Betweenthetwolastratioscomestheratioofone-and-a-halftoone,whichisthatofthepaean.Nowtheothertwokindsofrhythmmustberejectedinwritingprose,partlyforthereasonsgiven,andpartlybecausetheyaretoometrical;andthepaeanmustbeadopted,sincefromthisaloneoftherhythmsmentionednodefinitemetrearises,andthereforeitistheleastobtrusiveofthem.Atpresentthesameformofpaeanisemployedatthebeginningaattheendofsentences,whereastheendshoulddifferfromthebeginning.Therearetwooppositekindsofpaean,oneofwhichissuitabletothebeginningofasentence,whereitisindeedactuallyused;thisisthekindthatbeginswithalongsyllableandendswiththreeshortones,as"Dalogenes|eiteLuki|an,"and"Chruseokom|aEkate|paiDios."Theotherpaeanbegins,conversely,withthreeshortsyllablesandendswithalongone,as

"metadelan|udatatok|eanone|oanisenux."Thiskindofpaeanmakesarealclose:ashortsyllablecangivenoeffectoffinality,andthereforemakestherhythmappeartruncated.Asentenceshouldbreakoffwiththelongsyllable:thefactthatitisovershouldbeindicatednotbythescribe,orbyhisperiod-markinthemargin,butbytherhythmitself.Wehavenowseenthatourlanguagemustberhythmicalandnotdestituteofrhythm,andwhatrhythms,inwhatparticularshape,makeitso.Part9Thelanguageofprosemustbeeitherfree-running,withitspartsunitedbynothingexcepttheconnectingwords,likethepreludesindithyrambs;orcompactandantithetical,likethestrophesoftheoldpoets.Thefree-runningstyleistheancientone,e.g.'HereinissetforththeinquiryofHerodotustheThurian.'Everyoneusedthismethodformerly;notmanydosonow.By'free-running'styleImeanthekindthathasnonaturalstopping-places,andcomestoastoponlybecausethereisnomoretosayofthatsubject.Thisstyleisunsatisfyingjustbecauseitgoesonindefinitely-onealwayslikestosightastopping-placeinfrontofone:itisonlyatthegoalthatmeninaracefaintandcollapse;whiletheyseetheendofthecoursebeforethem,theycankeepongoing.Such,then,isthefree-runningkindofstyle;thecompactisthatwhichisinperiods.ByaperiodImeanaportionofspeechthathasinitselfabeginningandanend,beingatthesametimenottoobigtobetakeninataglance.Languageofthiskindissatisfyingandeasytofollow.Itissatisfying,becauseitisjustthereverseofindefinite;andmoreover,theheareralwaysfeelsthatheisgraspingsomethingandhasreachedsomedefiniteconclusion;whereasitisunsatisfactorytoseenothinginfrontofyouandgetnowhere.Itiseasytofollow,becauseitcaneasilyberemembered;andthisbecauselanguagewheninperiodicformcanbenumbered,andnumberistheeasiestofallthingstoremember.Thatiswhyverse,whichismeasured,isalwaysmoreeasilyrememberedthanprose,whichisnot:themeasuresofversecanbenumbered.Theperiodmust,further,notbecompleteduntilthesenseiscomplete:itmustnotbecapableofbreakingoffabruptly,asmayhappenwiththefollowingiambiclinesofSophocles-"Calydon'ssoilisthis;ofPelops'land"(Thesmilingplainsfaceusacrossthestrait.)"Byawrongdivisionofthewordsthehearermaytakethemeaningtobethereverseofwhatitis:forinstance,inthepassagequoted,onemightimaginethatCalydonisinthePeloponnesus.APeriodmaybeeitherdividedintoseveralmembersorsimple.Theperiodofseveralmembersisaportionofspeech(1)completeinitself,(2)dividedintoparts,and(3)easilydeliveredatasinglebreath-asawhole,thatis;notbyfreshbreathbeingtakenatthedivision.Amemberisoneofthetwopartsofsuchaperiod.Bya'simple'period,Imeanthatwhichhasonlyonemember.Themembers,andthewholeperiods,shouldbeneithercurtnorlong.Amemberwhichistooshortoftenmakesthelistenerstumble;heisstillexpectingtherhythmtogoontothelimithismindhasfixedforit;andifmeanwhileheispulledback

bythespeaker'sstopping,theshockisboundtomakehim,sotospeak,stumble.If,ontheotherhand,yougoontoolong,youmakehimfeelleftbehind,justaspeoplewhowhenwalkingpassbeyondtheboundarybeforeturningbackleavetheircompanionsbehindSotooifaperiodistoolongyouturnitintoaspeech,orsomethinglikeadithyrambicprelude.TheresultismuchlikethepreludesthatDemocritusofChiosjeeredatMelanippidesforwritinginsteadofantistrophicstanzas-"Hethatsetstrapsforanotherman'sfeet"Isliketofallintothemfirst;"Andlong-windedpreludesdoharmtousall,"Butthepreludercatchesitworst."Whichapplieslikewisetolong-memberedorators.Periodswhosemembersarealtogethertooshortarenotperiodsatall;andtheresultistobringthehearerdownwithacrash.Theperiodicstylewhichisdividedintomembersisoftwokinds.Itiseithersimplydivided,asin'Ihaveoftenwonderedattheconvenersofnationalgatheringsandthefoundersofathleticcontests';oritisantithetical,where,ineachofthetwomembers,oneofonepairofoppositesisputalongwithoneofanotherpair,orthesamewordisusedtobrackettwoopposites,as'Theyaidedbothparties-notonlythosewhostayedbehindbutthosewhoaccompaniedthem:forthelattertheyacquirednewterritorylargerthanthatathome,andtotheformertheyleftterritoryathomethatwaslargeenough'.Herethecontrastedwordsare'stayingbehind'and'accompanying','enough'and'larger'.Sointheexample,'Bothtothosewhowanttogetpropertyandtothosewhodesiretoenjoyit'where'enjoyment'iscontrastedwith'getting'.Again,'itoftenhappensinsuchenterprisesthatthewisemenfailandthefoolssucceed';'theywereawardedtheprizeofvalourimmediately,andwonthecommandoftheseanotlongafterwards';'tosailthroughthemainlandandmarchthroughthesea,bybridgingtheHellespontandcuttingthroughAthos';'naturegavethemtheircountryandlawtookitawayagain';'ofthemperishedinmisery,othersweresavedindisgrace';'Atheniancitizenskeepforeignersintheirhousesasservants,whilethecityofAthensallowsheralliesbythousandstoliveastheforeigner'sslaves';and'topossessinlifeortobequeathatdeath'.ThereisalsowhatsomeonesaidaboutPeitholausandLycophroninalaw-court,'Thesemenusedtosellyouwhentheywereathome,andnowtheyhavecometoyouhereandboughtyou'.Allthesepassageshavethestructuredescribedabove.Suchaformofspeechissatisfying,becausethesignificanceofcontrastedideasiseasilyfelt,especiallywhentheyarethusputsidebyside,andalsobecauseithastheeffectofalogicalargument;itisbyputtingtwoopposingconclusionssidebysidethatyouproveoneofthemfalse.Such,then,isthenatureofantithesis.Parisosisismakingthetwomembersofaperiodequalinlength.Paromoeosisismakingtheextremewordsofbothmemberslikeeachother.Thismusthappeneitheratthebeginningorattheendofeachmember.Ifatthebeginning,theresemblancemustalwaysbebetweenwholewords;attheend,betweenfinalsyllablesorinflexionsofthesamewordorthesamewordrepeated.Thus,atthebeginning"agrongarelabenarlonpar'autou"and

"dorhetoitepelontopararretoitepeessin"Attheend"oukwethesanautonpaidiontetokenai,"allautouaitlonlelonenai,"and"enpleiotalsdeopontisikaienelachistaiselpisin"Anexampleofinflexionsofthesamewordis"axiosdestaoenaichalkousoukaxiosonchalkou;"Ofthesamewordrepeated,"sud'autonkaizontaelegeskakoskainungrafeiskakos."Ofonesyllable,"tid'anepaoesdeinon,eiandrh'eidesarhgon;"Itispossibleforthesamesentencetohaveallthesefeaturestogether-antithesis,parison,andhomoeoteleuton.(ThepossiblebeginningsofperiodshavebeenprettyfullyenumeratedintheTheodectea.)Therearealsospuriousantitheses,likethatofEpicharmus-"ThereonetimeIastheirguestdidstay,"Andtheyweremyhostsonanotherday."Part10Wemaynowconsidertheabovepointssettled,andpassontosaysomethingaboutthewaytodeviselivelyandtakingsayings.Theiractualinventioncanonlycomethroughnaturaltalentorlongpractice;butthistreatisemayindicatethewayitisdone.Wemaydealwiththembyenumeratingthedifferentkindsofthem.Wewillbeginbyremarkingthatweallnaturallyfinditagreeabletogetholdofnewideaseasily:wordsexpressideas,andthereforethosewordsarethemostagreeablethatenableustogetholdofnewideas.Nowstrangewordssimplypuzzleus;ordinarywordsconveyonlywhatweknowalready;itisfrommetaphorthatwecanbestgetholdofsomethingfresh.Whenthepoetcalls'oldageawitheredstalk',heconveysanewidea,anewfact,tousbymeansofthegeneralnotionofbloom,whichiscommontoboththings.Thesimilesofthepoetsdothesame,andtherefore,iftheyaregoodsimiles,giveaneffectofbrilliance.Thesimile,ashasbeensaidbefore,isametaphor,differingfromitonlyinthewayitisput;andjustbecauseitislongeritislessattractive.Besides,itdoesnotsayoutrightthat'this'is'that',andthereforethehearerislessinterestedintheidea.Wesee,then,thatbothspeechandreasoningarelively

inproportionastheymakeusseizeanewideapromptly.Forthisreasonpeoplearenotmuchtakeneitherbyobviousarguments(usingtheword'obvious'tomeanwhatisplaintoeverybodyandneedsnoinvestigation),norbythosewhichpuzzleuswhenwehearthemstated,butonlybythosewhichconveytheirinformationtousassoonaswehearthem,providedwehadnottheinformationalready;orwhichthemindonlyjustfailstokeepupwith.Thesetwokindsdoconveytousasortofinformation:buttheobviousandtheobscurekindsconveynothing,eitheratonceorlateron.Itisthesequalities,then,that,sofarasthemeaningofwhatissaidisconcerned,makeanargumentacceptable.Sofarasthestyleisconcerned,itistheantitheticalformthatappealstous,e.g.'judgingthatthepeacecommontoalltherestwasawarupontheirownprivateinterests',wherethereisanantithesisbetweenwarandpeace.Itisalsogoodtousemetaphoricalwords;butthemetaphorsmustnotbefar-fetched,ortheywillbedifficulttograsp,norobvious,ortheywillhavenoeffect.Thewords,too,oughttosetthescenebeforeoureyes;foreventsoughttobeseeninprogressratherthaninprospect.Sowemustaimatthesethreepoints:Antithesis,Metaphor,andActuality.OfthefourkindsofMetaphorthemosttakingistheproportionalkind.ThusPericles,forinstance,saidthatthevanishingfromtheircountryoftheyoungmenwhohadfalleninthewarwas'asifthespringweretakenoutoftheyear'.Leptines,speakingoftheLacedaemonians,saidthathewouldnothavetheAtheniansletGreece'loseoneofhertwoeyes'.WhenChareswaspressingforleavetobeexamineduponhisshareintheOlynthiacwar,Cephisodotuswasindignant,sayingthathewantedhisexaminationtotakeplace'whilehehadhisfingersuponthepeople'sthroat'.ThesamespeakeronceurgedtheAthenianstomarchtoEuboea,'withMiltiades'decreeastheirrations'.Iphicrates,indignantatthetrucemadebytheAthenianswithEpidaurusandtheneighbouringsea-board,saidthattheyhadstrippedthemselvesoftheirtravellingmoneyforthejourneyofwar.Peitholauscalledthestate-galley'thepeople'sbigstick',andSestos'thecorn-binofthePeiraeus'.PericlesbadehiscountrymenremoveAegina,'thateyesoreofthePeiraeus.'AndMoeroclessaidhewasnomorearascalthanwasacertainrespectablecitizenhenamed,'whoserascalitywasworthoverthirtypercentperannumtohim,insteadofameretenlikehisown'.ThereisalsotheiambiclineofAnaxandridesaboutthewayhisdaughtersputoffmarrying-"Mydaughters'marriage-bondsareoverdue."PolyeuctussaidofaparalyticmannamedSpeusippusthathecouldnotkeepquiet,'thoughfortunehadfastenedhiminthepilloryofdisease'.Cephisodotuscalledwarships'paintedmillstones'.DiogenestheDogcalledtaverns'themess-roomsofAttica'.AesionsaidthattheAthenianshad'emptied'theirtownintoSicily:thisisagraphicmetaphor.'TillallHellasshoutedaloud'mayberegardedasametaphor,andagraphiconeagain.CephisodotusbadetheAthenianstakecarenottoholdtoomany'parades'.Isocratesusedthesamewordofthosewho'paradeatthenationalfestivals.'AnotherexampleoccursintheFuneralSpeech:'ItisfittingthatGreeceshouldcutoffherhairbesidethetombofthosewhofellatSalamis,sinceherfreedomandtheirvalourareburiedinthesamegrave.'Evenifthespeakerherehadonlysaidthatitwasrighttoweepwhenvalourwasbeingburiedintheirgrave,itwouldhavebeenametaphor,andagraphicone;butthecouplingof'theirvalour'and'herfreedom'presentsakindofantithesisaswell.'Thecourseofmywords',saidIphicrates,'liesstraightthroughthemiddleofChares'deeds':thisisaproportionalmetaphor,andthephrase'straightthroughthemiddle'makesitgraphic.Theexpression'tocallinonedangertorescueusfromanother'isagraphicmetaphor.Lycoleonsaid,defendingChabrias,'Theydidnotrespecteventhatbronzestatueofhisthatintercedesforhimyonder'.Thiswas

ametaphorforthemoment,thoughitwouldnotalwaysapply;avividmetaphor,however;Chabriasisindanger,andhisstatueintercedesforhim-thatlifelessyetlivingthingwhichrecordshisservicestohiscountry.'Practisingineverywaylittlenessofmind'ismetaphorical,forpractisingaqualityimpliesincreasingit.Sois'Godkindledourreasontobealampwithinoursoul',forbothreasonandlightrevealthings.Sois'wearenotputtinganendtoourwars,butonlypostponingthem',forbothliteralpostponementandthemakingofsuchapeaceasthisapplytofutureaction.Soissuchasayingas'Thistreatyisafarnoblertrophythanthosewesetuponfieldsofbattle;theycelebratesmallgainsandsinglesuccesses;itcelebratesourtriumphinthewarasawhole';forbothtrophyandtreatyaresignsofvictory.Sois'Acountrypaysaheavyreckoninginbeingcondemnedbythejudgementofmankind',forareckoningisdamagedeservedlyincurred.Part11Ithasalreadybeenmentionedthatlivelinessisgotbyusingtheproportionaltypeofmetaphorandbeingmaking(ie.makingyourhearersseethings).Wehavestilltoexplainwhatwemeanbytheir'seeingthings',andwhatmustbedonetoeffectthis.By'makingthemseethings'Imeanusingexpressionsthatrepresentthingsasinastateofactivity.Thus,tosaythatagoodmanis'four-square'iscertainlyametaphor;boththegoodmanandthesquareareperfect;butthemetaphordoesnotsuggestactivity.Ontheotherhand,intheexpression'withhisvigourinfullbloom'thereisanotionofactivity;andsoin'Butyoumustroamasfreeasasacredvictim';andin"ThereasupsprangtheHellenestotheirfeet,"where'upsprang'givesusactivityaswellasmetaphor,foritatoncesuggestsswiftness.SowithHomer'scommonpracticeofgivingmetaphoricallifetolifelessthings:allsuchpassagesaredistinguishedbytheeffectofactivitytheyconvey.Thus,"Downwardanontothevalleyreboundedtheboulderremorseless;and""The(bitter)arrowflew;"and"Flyingoneagerly;and"Stuckintheearth,stillpantingtofeedonthefleshoftheheroes;and"Andthepointofthespearinitsfurydrove"fullthroughhisbreastbone."Inalltheseexamplesthethingshavetheeffectofbeingactivebecausetheyaremadeintolivingbeings;shamelessbehaviourandfuryandsoonareallformsofactivity.Andthepoethasattachedtheseideastothethingsbymeansofproportionalmetaphors:asthestoneistoSisyphus,soistheshamelessmantohisvictim.Inhisfamoussimiles,too,hetreatsinanimatethingsinthesameway:

"Curvingandcrestedwithwhite,hostfollowing"hostwithoutceasing."Hereherepresentseverythingasmovingandliving;andactivityismovement.Metaphorsmustbedrawn,ashasbeensaidalready,fromthingsthatarerelatedtotheoriginalthing,andyetnotobviouslysorelated-justasinphilosophyalsoanacutemindwillperceiveresemblanceseveninthingsfarapart.ThusArchytassaidthatanarbitratorandanaltarwerethesame,sincetheinjuredflytobothforrefuge.Oryoumightsaythatananchorandanoverheadhookwerethesame,sincebothareinawaythesame,onlytheonesecuresthingsfrombelowandtheotherfromabove.Andtospeakofstatesas'levelled'istoidentifytwowidelydifferentthings,theequalityofaphysicalsurfaceandtheequalityofpoliticalpowers.Livelinessisspeciallyconveyedbymetaphor,andbythefurtherpowerofsurprisingthehearer;becausethehearerexpectedsomethingdifferent,hisacquisitionofthenewideaimpresseshimallthemore.Hismindseemstosay,'Yes,tobesure;Ineverthoughtofthat'.Thelivelinessofepigrammaticremarksisduetothemeaningnotbeingjustwhatthewordssay:asinthesayingofStesichorusthat'thecicalaswillchirptothemselvesontheground'.Well-constructedriddlesareattractiveforthesamereason;anewideaisconveyed,andthereismetaphoricalexpression.Sowiththe'novelties'ofTheodorus.Inthesethethoughtisstartling,and,asTheodorusputsit,doesnotfitinwiththeideasyoualreadyhave.Theyareliketheburlesquewordsthatonefindsinthecomicwriters.Theeffectisproducedevenbyjokesdependinguponchangesofthelettersofaword;thistooisasurprise.Youfindthisinverseaswellasinprose.Thewordwhichcomesisnotwhatthehearerimagined:thus"Onwardhecame,andhisfeetwereshodwithhis-chilblains,"whereoneimaginedthewordwouldbe'sandals'.Butthepointshouldbeclearthemomentthewordsareuttered.Jokesmadebyalteringthelettersofawordconsistinmeaning,notjustwhatyousay,butsomethingthatgivesatwisttothewordused;e.g.theremarkofTheodorusaboutNicontheharpistThratt'eisu('youThracianslavey'),wherehepretendstomeanThratteissu('youharpplayer'),andsurprisesuswhenwefindhemeanssomethingelse.Soyouenjoythepointwhenyouseeit,thoughtheremarkwillfallflatunlessyouareawarethatNiconisThracian.Oragain:Bouleiautonpersai.Inboththesecasesthesayingmustfitthefacts.ThisisalsotrueofsuchlivelyremarksastheonetotheeffectthattotheAthenianstheirempire(arche)oftheseawasnotthebeginning(arche)oftheirtroubles,sincetheygainedbyit.OrtheoppositeoneofIsocrates,thattheirempire(arche)wasthebeginning(arche)oftheirtroubles.Eitherway,thespeakersayssomethingunexpected,thesoundnessofwhichisthereuponrecognized.Therewouldbenothingcleverissaying'empireisempire'.Isocratesmeansmorethanthat,andusesthewordwithanewmeaning.Sotoowiththeformersaying,whichdeniesthatarcheinonesensewasarcheinanothersense.Inallthesejokes,whetherawordisusedinasecondsenseormetaphorically,thejokeisgoodifitfitsthefacts.Forinstance,Anaschetos(propername)oukanaschetos:whereyousaythatwhatisso-and-soinonesenseisnotso-and-soinanother;well,ifthemanisunpleasant,thejokefitsthefacts.Again,take-"ThoumustnotbeastrangerstrangerthanThoushould'st."

Donotthewords'thoumustnotbe',&c.,amounttosayingthatthestrangermustnotalwaysbestrange?Hereagainistheuseofonewordindifferentsenses.Ofthesamekindalsoisthemuch-praisedverseofAnaxandrides:"Deathismostfitbeforeyoudo"Deedsthatwouldmakedeathfitforyou."Thisamountstosaying'itisafitthingtodiewhenyouarenotfittodie',or'itisafitthingtodiewhendeathisnotfitforyou',i.e.whendeathisnotthefitreturnforwhatyouaredoing.Thetypeoflanguageemployed-isthesameinalltheseexamples;butthemorebrieflyandantitheticallysuchsayingscanbeexpressed,themoretakingtheyare,forantithesisimpressesthenewideamorefirmlyandbrevitymorequickly.Theyshouldalwayshaveeithersomepersonalapplicationorsomemeritofexpression,iftheyaretobetruewithoutbeingcommonplace-tworequirementsnotalwayssatisfiedsimultaneously.Thus'amanshoulddiehavingdonenowrong'istruebutdull:'therightmanshouldmarrytherightwoman'isalsotruebutdull.No,theremustbebothgoodqualitiestogether,asin'itisfittingtodiewhenyouarenotfitfordeath'.Themoreasayinghasthesequalitis,thelivelieritappears:if,forinstance,itswordingismetaphorical,metaphoricalintherightway,antithetical,andbalanced,andatthesametimeitgivesanideaofactivity.Successfulsimilesalso,ashasbeensaidabove,areinasensemetaphors,sincetheyalwaysinvolvetworelationsliketheproportionalmetaphor.Thus:ashield,wesay,isthe'drinking-bowlofAres',andabowisthe'chordlesslyre'.Thiswayofputtingametaphorisnot'simple',asitwouldbeifwecalledthebowalyreortheshieldadrinking-bowl.Thereare'simple'similesalso:wemaysaythataflute-playerislikeamonkey,orthatashort-sightedman'seyesarelikealamp-flamewithwaterdroppingonit,sincebotheyesandflamekeepwinking.Asimilesucceedsbestwhenitisaconvertedmetaphor,foritispossibletosaythatashieldislikethedrinking-bowlofAres,orthataruinislikeahouseinrags,andtosaythatNiceratusislikeaPhiloctetesstungbyPratys-thesimilemadebyThrasyniachuswhenhesawNiceratus,whohadbeenbeatenbyPratysinarecitationcompetition,stillgoingaboutunkemptandunwashed.Itisintheserespectsthatpoetsfailworstwhentheyfail,andsucceedbestwhentheysucceed,i.e.whentheygivetheresemblancepat,asin"Thoselegsofhiscurljustlikeparsleyleaves;"and"JustlikePhilammonstrugglingwithhispunchball."Theseareallsimiles;andthatsimilesaremetaphorshasbeenstatedoftenalready.Proverbs,again,aremetaphorsfromonespeciestoanother.Suppose,forinstance,amantostartsomeundertakinginhopeofgainandthentolosebyitlateron,'HerewehaveoncemorethemanofCarpathusandhishare',sayshe.Forbothalikewentthroughthesaidexperience.Ithasnowbeenexplainedfairlycompletelyhowlivelinessissecuredandwhyithastheeffectithas.Successfulhyperbolesarealsometaphors,e.g.theoneaboutthemanwithablackeye,'youwouldhavethoughthewasabasketofmulberries';herethe'blackeye'is

comparedtoamulberrybecauseofitscolour,theexaggerationlyinginthequantityofmulberriessuggested.Thephrase'likeso-and-so'mayintroduceahyperboleundertheformofasimile.Thus"JustlikePhilammonstrugglingwithhispunchball"isequivalentto'youwouldhavethoughthewasPhilammonstrugglingwithhispunchball';and"Thoselegsofhiscurljustlikeparsleyleaves"isequivalentto'hislegsaresocurlythatyouwouldhavethoughttheywerenotlegsbutparsleyleaves'.Hyperbolesareforyoungmentouse;theyshowvehemenceofcharacter;andthisiswhyangrypeopleusethemmorethanotherpeople."Notthoughhegavemeasmuchasthedust"orthesandsofthesea..."Buther,thedaughterofAtreus'son,Ineverwillmarry,"Nay,notthoughshewerefairerthanAphroditetheGolden,"DefterofhandthanAthene..."(TheAtticoratorsareparticularlyfondofthismethodofspeech.)Consequentlyitdoesnotsuitanelderlyspeaker.Part12Itshouldbeobservedthateachkindofrhetorichasitsownappropriatestyle.Thestyleofwrittenproseisnotthatofspokenoratory,norarethoseofpoliticalandforensicspeakingthesame.Bothwrittenandspokenhavetobeknown.ToknowthelatteristoknowhowtospeakgoodGreek.Toknowtheformermeansthatyouarenotobliged,asotherwiseyouare,toholdyourtonguewhenyouwishtocommunicatesomethingtothegeneralpublic.Thewrittenstyleisthemorefinished:thespokenbetteradmitsofdramaticdelivery-likethekindoforatorythatreflectscharacterandthekindthatreflectsemotion.Henceactorslookoutforplayswritteninthelatterstyle,andpoetsforactorscompetenttoactinsuchplays.Yetpoetswhoseplaysaremeanttobereadarereadandcirculated:Chaeremon,forinstance,whoisasfinishedasaprofessionalspeech-writer;andLicymniusamongthedithyrambicpoets.Comparedwiththoseofothers,thespeechesofprofessionalwriterssoundthininactualcontests.Thoseoftheorators,ontheotherhand,aregoodtohearspoken,butlookamateurishenoughwhentheypassintothehandsofareader.Thisisjustbecausetheyaresowellsuitedforanactualtussle,andthereforecontainmanydramatictouches,which,beingrobbedofalldramaticrendering,failtodotheirownproperwork,andconsequentlylooksilly.Thusstringsofunconnectedwords,andconstantrepetitionsofwordsandphrases,areveryproperlycondemnedinwrittenspeeches:butnotinspokenspeeches-speakersusethemfreely,fortheyhaveadramaticeffect.Inthis

repetitiontheremustbevarietyoftone,pavingtheway,asitwere,todramaticeffect;e.g.'Thisisthevillainamongyouwhodeceivedyou,whocheatedyou,whomeanttobetrayyoucompletely'.ThisisthesortofthingthatPhilemontheactorusedtodointheOldMen'sMadnessofAnaxandrideswheneverhespokethewords'RhadamanthusandPalamedes',andalsointheprologuetotheSaintswheneverhepronouncedthepronoun'I'.Ifonedoesnotdeliversuchthingscleverly,itbecomesacaseof'themanwhoswallowedapoker'.Sotoowithstringsofunconnectedwords,e.g.'Icametohim;Imethim;Ibesoughthim'.Suchpassagesmustbeacted,notdeliveredwiththesamequalityandpitchofvoice,asthoughtheyhadonlyoneideainthem.Theyhavethefurtherpeculiarityofsuggestingthatanumberofseparatestatementshavebeenmadeinthetimeusuallyoccupiedbyone.Justastheuseofconjunctionsmakesmanystatementsintoasingleone,sotheomissionofconjunctionsactsinthereversewayandmakesasingleoneintomany.Itthusmakeseverythingmoreimportant:e.g.'Icametohim;Italkedtohim;Ientreatedhim'-whatalotoffacts!thehearerthinks-'hepaidnoattentiontoanythingIsaid'.ThisistheeffectwhichHomerseekswhenhewrites,"NireuslikewisefromSyme(threewell-fashionedshipsdidbring),"Nireus,thesonofAglaia(andCharopus,bright-facedking),"Nireus,thecomeliestman(ofallthattoIlium'sstrand)."Ifmanythingsaresaidaboutaman,hisnamemustbementionedmanytimes;andthereforepeoplethinkthat,ifhisnameismentionedmanytimes,manythingshavebeensaidabouthim.SothatHomer,bymeansofthisillusion,hasmadeagreatdealofthoughhehasmentionedhimonlyinthisonepassage,andhaspreservedhismemory,thoughhenowheresaysawordabouthimafterwards.Nowthestyleoforatoryaddressedtopublicassembliesisreallyjustlikescene-painting.Thebiggerthethrong,themoredistantisthepointofview:sothat,intheoneandtheother,highfinishindetailissuperfluousandseemsbetteraway.Theforensicstyleismorehighlyfinished;stillmoresoisthestyleoflanguageaddressedtoasinglejudge,withwhomthereisverylittleroomforrhetoricalartifices,sincehecantakethewholethinginbetter,andjudgeofwhatistothepointandwhatisnot;thestruggleislessintenseandsothejudgementisundisturbed.Thisiswhythesamespeakersdonotdistinguishthemselvesinallthesebranchesatonce;highfinishiswantedleastwheredramaticdeliveryiswantedmost,andherethespeakermusthaveagoodvoice,andaboveall,astrongone.Itisceremonialoratorythatismostliterary,foritismeanttoberead;andnexttoitforensicoratory.Toanalysestylestillfurther,andaddthatitmustbeagreeableormagnificent,isuseless;forwhyshouldithavethesetraitsanymorethan'restraint','liberality',oranyothermoralexcellence?Obviouslyagreeablenesswillbeproducedbythequalitiesalreadymentioned,ifourdefinitionofexcellenceofstylehasbeencorrect.Forwhatotherreasonshouldstylebe'clear',and'notmean'but'appropriate'?Ifitisprolix,itisnotclear;noryetifitiscurt.Plainlythemiddlewaysuitsbest.Again,stylewillbemadeagreeablebytheelementsmentioned,namelybyagoodblendingofordinaryandunusualwords,bytherhythm,andby-thepersuasivenessthatspringsfromappropriateness.Thisconcludesourdiscussionofstyle,bothinitsgeneralaspectsandinitsspecial

applicationstothevariousbranchesofrhetoric.WehavenowtodealwithArrangement.Part13Aspeechhastwoparts.Youmuststateyourcase,andyoumustproveit.Youcannoteitherstateyourcaseandomittoproveit,orproveitwithouthavingfirststatedit;sinceanyproofmustbeaproofofsomething,andtheonlyuseofapreliminarystatementistheproofthatfollowsit.OfthesetwopartsthefirstpartiscalledtheStatementofthecase,thesecondparttheArgument,justaswedistinguishbetweenEnunciationandDemonstration.Thecurrentdivisionisabsurd.For'narration'surelyispartofaforensicspeechonly:howinapoliticalspeechoraspeechofdisplaycantherebe'narration'inthetechnicalsense?orareplytoaforensicopponent?oranepilogueinclosely-reasonedspeeches?Again,introduction,comparisonofconflictingarguments,andrecapitulationareonlyfoundinpoliticalspeecheswhenthereisastrugglebetweentwopolicies.Theymayoccurthen;somayevenaccusationanddefence,oftenenough;buttheyformnoessentialpartofapoliticalspeech.Evenforensicspeechesdonotalwaysneedepilogues;not,forinstance,ashortspeech,noroneinwhichthefactsareeasytoremember,theeffectofanepiloguebeingalwaysareductionintheapparentlength.Itfollows,then,thattheonlynecessarypartsofaspeecharetheStatementandtheArgument.Thesearetheessentialfeaturesofaspeech;anditcannotinanycasehavemorethanIntroduction,Statement,Argument,andEpilogue.'RefutationoftheOpponent'ispartofthearguments:sois'Comparison'oftheopponent'scasewithyourown,forthatprocessisamagnifyingofyourowncaseandthereforeapartofthearguments,sinceonewhodoesthisprovessomething.TheIntroductiondoesnothinglikethis;nordoestheEpilogue-itmerelyremindsusofwhathasbeensaidalready.Ifwemakesuchdistinctionsweshallend,likeTheodorusandhisfollowers,bydistinguishing'narration'properfrom'post-narration'and'pre-narration',and'refutation'from'finalrefutation'.Butweoughtonlytobringinanewnameifitindicatesarealspecieswithdistinctspecificqualities;otherwisethepracticeispointlessandsilly,likethewayLicymniusinventednamesinhisArtofRhetoric-'Secundation','Divagation','Ramification'.Part14TheIntroductionisthebeginningofaspeech,correspondingtotheprologueinpoetryandthepreludeinflute-music;theyareallbeginnings,pavingtheway,asitwere,forwhatistofollow.Themusicalpreluderesemblestheintroductiontospeechesofdisplay;asfluteplayersplayfirstsomebrilliantpassagetheyknowwellandthenfititontotheopeningnotesofthepieceitself,soinspeechesofdisplaythewritershouldproceedinthesameway;heshouldbeginwithwhatbesttakeshisfancy,andthenstrikeuphisthemeandleadintoit;whichisindeedwhatisalwaysdone.(TakeasanexampletheintroductiontotheHelenofIsocrates-thereisnothingincommonbetweenthe'eristics'andHelen.)Andhere,evenifyoutravelfarfromyoursubject,itisfitting,ratherthanthatthereshouldbesamenessintheentirespeech.Theusualsubjectfortheintroductionstospeechesofdisplayissomepieceofpraiseorcensure.ThusGorgiaswritesinhisOlympicSpeech,'Youdeservewidespreadadmiration,menofGreece',praisingthusthosewhostart,edthefestivalgatherings.'Isocrates,ontheotherhand,censuresthemforawardingdistinctionstofineathletesbutgivingnoprizeforintellectualability.Oronemaybeginwithapieceofadvice,thus:'WeoughttohonourgoodmenandsoImyselfampraisingAristeides'or'Weoughttohonourthosewhoareunpopularbutnotbadmen,menwhosegoodqualitieshaveneverbeennoticed,like

AlexandersonofPriam.'Heretheoratorgivesadvice.Orwemaybeginasspeakersdointhelaw-courts;thatistosay,withappealstotheaudiencetoexcuseusifourspeechisaboutsomethingparadoxical,difficult,orhackneyed;likeChoerilusinthelines-"Butnowwhenallotmentofallhasbeenmade..."Introductionstospeechesofdisplay,then,maybecomposedofsomepieceofpraiseorcensure,ofadvicetodoornottodosomething,orofappealstotheaudience;andyoumustchoosebetweenmakingthesepreliminarypassagesconnectedordisconnectedwiththespeechitself.Introductionstoforensicspeeches,itmustbeobserved,havethesamevalueastheprologuesofdramasandtheintroductionstoepicpoems;thedithyrambicpreluderesemblingtheintroductiontoaspeechofdisplay,as"Forthee,andthygilts,andthybattle-spoils...."Inprologues,andinepicpoetry,aforetasteofthethemeisgiven,intendedtoinformthehearersofitinadvanceinsteadofkeepingtheirmindsinsuspense.Anythingvaguepuzzlesthem:sogivethemagraspofthebeginning,andtheycanholdfasttoitandfollowtheargument.Sowefind-"Sing,Ogoddessofsong,oftheWrath..."Tellme,OMuse,ofthehero..."Leadmetotellanewtale,howtherecamegreatwarfaretoEurope"OutoftheAsianland..."Thetragicpoets,too,letusknowthepivotoftheirplay;ifnotattheoutsetlikeEuripides,atleastsomewhereintheprefacetoaspeechlikeSophocles-"Polybuswasmyfather...;"andsoinComedy.This,then,isthemostessentialfunctionanddistinctivepropertyoftheintroduction,toshowwhattheaimofthespeechis;andthereforenointroductionoughttobeemployedwherethesubjectisnotlongorintricate.Theotherkindsofintroductionemployedareremedialinpurpose,andmaybeusedinanytypeofspeech.Theyareconcernedwiththespeaker,thehearer,thesubject,orthespeaker'sopponent.Thoseconcernedwiththespeakerhimselforwithhisopponentaredirectedtoremovingorexcitingprejudice.Butwhereasthedefendantwillbeginbydealingwiththissortofthing,theprosecutorwilltakequiteanotherlineanddealwithsuchmattersintheclosingpartofhisspeech.Thereasonforthisisnotfartoseek.Thedefendant,when

heisgoingtobringhimselfonthestage,mustclearawayanyobstacles,andthereforemustbeginbyremovinganyprejudicefeltagainsthim.Butifyouaretoexciteprejudice,youmustdosoattheclose,sothatthejudgesmaymoreeasilyrememberwhatyouhavesaid.Theappealtotheheareraimsatsecuringhisgoodwill,oratarousinghisresentment,orsometimesatgaininghisseriousattentiontothecase,orevenatdistractingit-forgainingitisnotalwaysanadvantage,andspeakerswilloftenforthatreasontrytomakehimlaugh.Youmayuseanymeansyouchoosetomakeyourhearerreceptive;amongothers,givinghimagoodimpressionofyourcharacter,whichalwayshelpstosecurehisattention.Hewillbereadytoattendtoanythingthattoucheshimselfandtoanythingthatisimportant,surprising,oragreeable;andyoushouldaccordinglyconveytohimtheimpressionthatwhatyouhavetosayisofthisnature.Ifyouwishtodistracthisattention,youshouldimplythatthesubjectdoesnotaffecthim,oristrivialordisagreeable.Butobserve,allthishasnothingtodowiththespeechitself.Itmerelyhastodowiththeweak-mindedtendencyofthehearertolistentowhatisbesidethepoint.Wherethistendencyisabsent,nointroductionwantedbeyondasummarystatementofyoursubject,toputasortofheadonthemainbodyofyourspeech.Moreover,callsforattention,whenrequired,maycomeequallywellinanypartofaspeech;infact,thebeginningofitisjustwherethereisleastslacknessofinterest;itisthereforeridiculoustoputthiskindofthingatthebeginning,wheneveryoneislisteningwithmostattention.Choosethereforeanypointinthespeechwheresuchanappealisneeded,andthensay'NowIbegyoutonotethispoint-itconcernsyouquiteasmuchasmyself';or"Iwilltellyouthatwhoselikeyouhaveneveryet"heardforterror,orforwonder.ThisiswhatProdicuscalled'slippinginabitofthefifty-drachmashow-lecturefortheaudiencewhenevertheybegantonod'.Itisplainthatsuchintroductionsareaddressednottoidealhearers,buttohearersaswefindthem.Theuseofintroductionstoexciteprejudiceortodispelmisgivingsisuniversal-"Mylord,Iwillnotsaythateagerly..."or"Whyallthispreface?"Introductionsarepopularwiththosewhosecaseisweak,orlooksweak;itpaysthemtodwellonanythingratherthantheactualfactsofit.Thatiswhyslaves,insteadofansweringthequestionsputtothem,makeindirectreplieswithlongpreambles.Themeansofexcitinginyourhearersgoodwillandvariousotherfeelingsofthesamekindhavealreadybeendescribed.ThepoetfinelysaysMayIfindinPhaeacianhearts,atmycoming,goodwillandcompassion;andthesearethetwothingsweshouldaimat.Inspeechesofdisplaywemustmakethehearerfeelthattheeulogyincludeseitherhimselforhisfamilyorhiswayoflifeorsomethingorotherofthekind.Foritistrue,asSocratessaysintheFuneralSpeech,that'thedifficultyisnottopraisetheAtheniansatAthensbutatSparta'.Theintroductionsofpoliticaloratorywillbemadeoutofthesamematerialsasthoseoftheforensickind,thoughthenatureofpoliticaloratorymakesthemveryrare.Thesubjectisknownalready,andthereforethefactsofthecaseneednointroduction;butyoumayhavetosaysomethingonaccountofyourselfortoyouropponents;orthosepresentmaybe

inclinedtotreatthemattereithermoreorlessseriouslythanyouwishthemto.Youmayaccordinglyhavetoexciteordispelsomeprejudice,ortomakethematterunderdiscussionseemmoreorlessimportantthanbefore:foreitherofwhichpurposesyouwillwantanintroduction.Youmayalsowantonetoaddelegancetoyourremarks,feelingthatotherwisetheywillhaveacasualair,likeGorgias'eulogyoftheEleans,inwhich,withoutanypreliminarysparringorfencing,hebeginsstraightoffwith'HappycityofElis!'Part15Indealingwithprejudice,oneclassofargumentisthatwherebyyoucandispelobjectionablesuppositionsaboutyourself.Itmakesnopracticaldifferencewhethersuchasuppositionhasbeenputintowordsornot,sothatthisdistinctionmaybeignored.Anotherwayistomeetanyoftheissuesdirectly:todenytheallegedfact;ortosaythatyouhavedonenoharm,ornonetohim,ornotasmuchashesays;orthatyouhavedonehimnoinjustice,ornotmuch;orthatyouhavedonenothingdisgraceful,ornothingdisgracefulenoughtomatter:thesearethesortofquestionsonwhichthedisputehinges.ThusIphicratesreplyingtoNausicrates,admittedthathehaddonethedeedalleged,andthathehaddoneNausicratesharm,butnotthathehaddonehimwrong.Oryoumayadmitthewrong,butbalanceitwithotherfacts,andsaythat,ifthedeedharmedhim,atanyrateitwashonourable;orthat,ifitgavehimpain,atleastitdidhimgood;orsomethingelselikethat.Anotherwayistoallegethatyouractionwasduetomistake,orbadluck,ornecessityasSophoclessaidhewasnottrembling,ashistraducermaintained,inordertomakepeoplethinkhimanoldman,butbecausehecouldnothelpit;hewouldrathernotbeeightyyearsold.Youmaybalanceyourmotiveagainstyouractualdeed;saying,forinstance,thatyoudidnotmeantoinjurehimbuttodoso-and-so;thatyoudidnotdowhatyouarefalselychargedwithdoing-thedamagewasaccidental-'IshouldindeedbeadetestablepersonifIhaddeliberatelyintendedthisresult.'Anotherwayisopenwhenyourcalumniator,oranyofhisconnexions,isorhasbeensubjecttothesamegroundsforsuspicion.Yetanother,whenothersaresubjecttothesamegroundsforsuspicionbutareadmittedtobeinfactinnocentofthecharge:e.g.'MustIbeaprofligatebecauseIamwell-groomed?Thenso-and-somustbeonetoo.'Another,ifotherpeoplehavebeencalumniatedbythesamemanorsomeoneelse,or,withoutbeingcalumniated,havebeensuspected,likeyourselfnow,andyethavebeenprovedinnocent.Anotherwayistoreturncalumnyforcalumnyandsay,'Itismonstroustotrusttheman'sstatementswhenyoucannottrustthemanhimself.'Anotheriswhenthequestionhasbeenalreadydecided.SowithEuripides'replytoHygiaenon,who,intheactionforanexchangeofproperties,accusedhimofimpietyinhavingwrittenalineencouragingperjury-"Mytonguehathsworn:nooathisonmysoul."Euripidessaidthathisopponenthimselfwasguiltyinbringingintothelaw-courtscaseswhosedecisionbelongedtotheDionysiaccontests.'IfIhavenotalreadyansweredformywordsthere,Iamreadytodosoifyouchoosetoprosecutemethere.'Anothermethodistodenouncecalumny,showingwhatanenormityitis,andinparticularthatitraisesfalse<The Internet Classics Archive | Works by Aristotle