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ABSTRACT
In order to meet PQ standard limits, it may be necessary to include some
sort of compensation. Modern solutions can be found in the form of active
rectification or active filtering. A shunt active power filter is suitable for the
suppression of negative load influence on the supply network, but if there are
supply voltage imperfections, a series active power filter may be needed to
provide full compensation. In recent years, solutions based on flexible ac
transmission systems (FACTS) have appeared. The application of FACTS
concepts in distribution systems has resulted in a new generation of
compensating devices. A unified power quality conditioner (UPQC) is the
extension of the unified power-flow controller (UPFC) concept at the
distribution level. It consists of combined series and shunt converters for
simultaneous compensation of voltage and current imperfections in a supply
feeder.
An IPFC consists of two series VSCs whose dc capacitors are coupled.
This allows active power to circulate between the VSCs. With this
configuration, two lines can be controlled simultaneously to optimize the
network utilization. An interline unified power-quality conditioner (IUPQC),
which is the extension of the IPFC concept at the distribution level. The IUPQC
consists of one series and one shunt converter. It is connected between two
feeders to regulate the bus voltage of one of the feeders, while regulating the
voltage across a sensitive load in the other feeder. In this configuration, the
voltage regulation in one of the feeders is performed by the shunt-VSC.
However, since the source impedance is very low, a high amount of current
would be needed to boost the bus voltage in case of a voltage sag/swell which is
not feasible. It also has low dynamic performance because the dc-link capacitor
voltage is not regulated.
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This paper presents a new unified power-quality conditioning system
(MC-UPQC), capable of simultaneous compensation for voltage and current in
multi-bus/multi-feeder systems. In this configuration, one shunt voltage-source
converter (shunt VSC) and two or more series VSCs exist. The system can be
applied to adjacent feeders to compensate for supply-voltage and load current
imperfections on the main feeder and full compensation of supply voltage
imperfections on the other feeders. In the proposed configuration, all converters
are connected back to back on the dc side and share a common dc-link
capacitor. Therefore, power can be transferred from one feeder to adjacent
feeders to compensate for sag/swell and interruption. The proposed topology
can be used for simultaneous compensation of voltage and current imperfections
in both feeders by sharing power compensation capabilities between two
adjacent feeders which are not connected. The system is also capable of
compensating for interruptions without the need for a battery storage system
and consequently without storage capacity limitations. The performance of the
MC-UPQC as well as the adopted control algorithm is illustrated by simulation.
CHAPTER.1
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INTRODUCTION
With increasing applications of nonlinear and electronically switched
devices in distribution systems and industries, power-quality (PQ) problems,
such as harmonics, flicker, and imbalance have become serious concerns. In
addition, lightning strikes on transmission lines, switching of capacitor banks,
and various network faults can also cause PQ problems, such as transients,
voltage sag/swell, and interruption. On the other hand, an increase of sensitive
loads involving digital electronics and complex process controllers requires a
pure sinusoidal supply voltage for proper load operation [1].
In order to meet PQ standard limits, it may be necessary to include some
sort of compensation. Modern solutions can be found in the form of active
rectification or active filtering [2]. A shunt active power filter is suitable for the
suppression of negative load influence on the supply network, but if there are
supply voltage imperfections, a series active power filter may be needed to
provide full compensation [3]. In recent years, solutions based on flexible ac
transmission systems (FACTS) have appeared. The application of FACTS
concepts in distribution systems has resulted in a new generation of
compensating devices. A unified power-quality conditioner (UPQC) [4] is the
extension of the unified power-flow controller (UPFC) [5] concept at the
distribution level. It consists of combined series and shunt converters for
simultaneous compensation of voltage and current imperfections in a supplyfeeder [6][8].
Recently, multiconverter FACTS devices, such as an interline power-flow
controller (IPFC) [9] and the generalized unified power-flow controller
(GUPFC) [10] are introduced. The aim of these devices is to control the power
flow of multilines or a subnetwork rather than control the power flow of a single
line by, for instance, a UPFC.
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When the power flows of two lines starting in one substation need to be
controlled, an interline power flow controller (IPFC) can be used. An IPFC
consists of two series VSCs whose dc capacitors are coupled. This allows active
power to circulate between the VSCs. With this configuration, two lines can be
controlled simultaneously to optimize the network utilization. The GUPFC
combines three or more shunt and series converters. It extends the concept of
voltage and power-flow control beyond what is achievable with the known two-
converter UPFC. The simplest GUPFC consists of three convertersone
connected in shunt and the other two in series with two transmission lines in a
substation. The basic GUPFC can control total five power system quantities,
such as a bus voltage and independent active and reactive power flows of two
lines. The concept of GUPFC can be extended for more lines if necessary. The
device may be installed in some central substations to manage power flows of
multilines or a group of lines and provide voltage support as well. By using
GUPFC devices, the transfer capability of transmission lines can be increased
significantly.
In this paper, a new configuration of a UPQC called the multiconverter
unified power-quality conditioner (MC-UPQC) is presented. The system is
extended by adding a series-VSC in an adjacent feeder. The proposed topology
can be used for simultaneous compensation of voltage and current imperfections
in both feeders by sharing power compensation capabilities between two
adjacent feeders which are not connected. The system is also capable ofcompensating for interruptions without the need for a battery storage system
and consequently without storage capacity limitations.
CHAPTER.2
POWER QUALITY
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The contemporary container crane industry, like many other industry
segments, is often enamored by the bells and whistles, colorful diagnostic
displays, high speed performance, and levels of automation that can be
achieved. Although these features and their indirectly related computer based
enhancements are key issues to an efficient terminal operation, we must not
forget the foundation upon which we are building. Power quality is the mortar
which bonds the foundation blocks. Power quality also affects terminal
operating economics, crane reliability, our environment, and initial investment
in power distribution systems to support new crane installations. To quote the
utility company newsletter which accompanied the last monthly issue of my
home utility billing: Using electricity wisely is a good environmental and
business practice which saves you money, reduces emissions from generating
plants, and conserves our natural resources. As we are all aware, container
crane performance requirements continue to increase at an astounding rate. Next
generation container cranes, already in the bidding process, will require average
power demands of 1500 to 2000 kW almost double the total average demand
three years ago. The rapid increase in power demand levels, an increase in
container crane population, SCR converter crane drive retrofits and the large
AC and DC drives needed to power and control these cranes will increase
awareness of the power quality issue in the very near future.
POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS
For the purpose of this article, we shall define power quality problems as:
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Any power problem that results in failure or mis operation of customer
equipment, manifests itself as an economic burden to the user, or produces
negative impacts on the environment.
When applied to the container crane industry, the power issues which degrade
power quality include:
Power Factor
Harmonic Distortion
Voltage Transients
Voltage Sags or Dips
Voltage Swells
The AC and DC variable speed drives utilized on board container cranes
are significant contributors to total harmonic current and voltage distortion.
Whereas SCR phase control creates the desirable average power factor, DC
SCR drives operate at less than this. In addition, line notching occurs when
SCRs commutate, creating transient peak recovery voltages that can be 3 to 4
times the nominal line voltage depending upon the system impedance and the
size of the drives. The frequency and severity of these power system
disturbances varies with the speed of the drive. Harmonic current injection by
AC and DC drives will be highest when the drives are operating at slow speeds.
Power factor will be lowest when DC drives are operating at slow speeds or
during initial acceleration and deceleration periods, increasing to its maximum
value when the SCRs are phased on to produce rated or base speed. Abovebase speed, the power factor essentially remains constant. Unfortunately,
container cranes can spend considerable time at low speeds as the operator
attempts to spot and land containers. Poor power factor places a greater kVA
demand burden on the utility or engine-alternator power source. Low power
factor loads can also affect the voltage stability which can ultimately result in
detrimental effects on the
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life of sensitive electronic equipment or even intermittent malfunction. Voltage
transients created by DC drive SCR line notching, AC drive voltage chopping,
and high frequency harmonic voltages and currents are all significant sources of
noise and disturbance to sensitive electronic equipment
Power quality can be improved through:
Power factor correction,
Harmonic filtering,
Special line notch filtering,
Transient voltage surge suppression,
Proper earthing systems.
In most cases, the person specifying and/or buying a container crane may
not be fully aware of the potential power quality issues. If this article
accomplishes nothing else, we would hope to provide that awareness.
In many cases, those involved with specification and procurement of
container cranes may not be cognizant of such issues, do not pay the utility
billings, or consider it someone elses concern. As a result, container crane
specifications may not include definitive power quality criteria such as power
factor correction and/or harmonic filtering. Also, many of those specifications
which do require power quality equipment do not properly define the criteria.
Early in the process of preparing the crane specification: Consult with the utility company to determine regulatory or contract
requirements that must be
satisfied, if any.
Consult with the electrical drive suppliers and determine the power quality
profiles that can be
expected based on the drive sizes and technologies proposed for the specific
project.
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Evaluate the economics of power quality correction not only on the present
situation, but consider the impact of future utility deregulation and the future
development plans for the terminal.
THE BENEFITS OF POWER QUALITY
Power quality in the container terminal environment impacts the economics of
the terminal operation, affects reliability of the terminal equipment, and affects
other consumers served by the same utility service. Each of these concerns is
explored in the following paragraphs.
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1. Economic Impact
The economic impact of power quality is the foremost incentive to container
terminal operators. Economic impact can be significant and manifest itself in
several ways:
a. Power Factor Penalties
Many utility companies invoke penalties for low power factor on monthly
billings. There is no industry standard followed by utility companies. Methods
of metering and calculating power factor penalties vary from one utility
company to the next. Some utility companies actually meter kVAR usage and
establish a fixed rate times the number of kVAR-hours consumed. Other utility
companies monitor kVAR demands and calculate power factor. If the power
factor falls below a fixed limit value over a demand period, a penalty is billed in
the form of an adjustment to the peak demand charges. A number of utility
companies servicing container terminal equipment do not yet invoke power
factor penalties. However, their service contract with the Port may still require
that a minimum power factor over a defined demand period be met. The utility
company may not continuously monitor power factor or kVAR usage and
reflect them in the monthly utility billings; however, they do reserve the right to
monitor the Port service at any time. If the power factor criteria set forth in the
service contract are not met, the user may be penalized, or required to take
corrective actions at the users expense. One utility company, which suppliespower service to several east coast container terminals in the USA, does not
reflect power factor penalties in their monthly billings, however, their service
contract with the terminal reads as follows:
The average power factor under operating conditions of customers load
at the point where service is metered shall be not less than 85%. If below 85%,
the customer may be required to furnish, install and maintain at its expense
corrective apparatus which will increase the Power factor of the entire
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installation to not less than 85%. The customer shall ensure that no excessive
harmonics or transients are introduced on to the [utility] system. This may
require special power conditioning equipment or filters. The IEEE Std. 519-
1992 is used as a guide in Determining appropriate design requirements.
The Port or terminal operations personnel, who are responsible for
maintaining container cranes, or specifying new container crane equipment,
should be aware of these requirements. Utility deregulation will most likely
force utilities to enforce requirements such as the example above. Terminal
operators who do not deal with penalty issues today may be faced with some
rather severe penalties in the future. A sound, future terminal growth plan
should include contingencies for addressing the possible economic impact of
utility deregulation.
b. System Losses
Harmonic currents and low power factor created by nonlinear loads, not
only result in possible power factor penalties, but also increase the power losses
in the distribution system. These losses are not visible as a separate item on
your monthly utility billing, but you pay for them each month. Container cranes
are significant contributors to harmonic currents and low power factor. Based
on the typical demands of todays high speed container cranes, correction of
power factoralone on a typical state of the art quay crane can result in a reduction of system
losses that converts to a 6 to 10% reduction in the monthly utility billing. For
most of the larger terminals, this is a significant annual saving in the cost of
operation.
c. Power Service Initial Capital Investments
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The power distribution system design and installation for new terminals,
as well as modification of systems for terminal capacity upgrades, involves high
cost, specialized, high and medium voltage equipment. Transformers,
switchgear, feeder cables, cable reel trailing cables, collector bars, etc. must be
sized based on the kVA demand. Thus cost of the equipment is directly related
to the total kVA demand. As the relationship above indicates, kVA demand is
inversely proportional to the overall power factor, i.e. a lower power factor
demands higher kVA for the same kW load. Container cranes are one of the
most significant users of power in the terminal. Since container cranes with DC,
6 pulse, SCR drives operate at relatively low power factor, the total kVA
demand is significantly larger than would be the case if power factor correction
equipment were supplied on board each crane or at some common bus location
in the terminal. In the absence of power quality corrective equipment,
transformers are larger, switchgear current ratings must be higher, feeder cable
copper sizes are larger, collector system and cable reel cables must be larger,
etc. Consequently, the cost of the initial power distribution system equipment
for a system which does not address power quality will most likely be higher
than the same system which includes power quality equipment.
2. Equipment Reliability
Poor power quality can affect machine or equipment reliability and
reduce the life of components. Harmonics, voltage transients, and voltagesystem sags and swells are all power quality problems and are all
interdependent. Harmonics affect power factor, voltage transients can induce
harmonics, the same phenomena which create harmonic current injection in DC
SCR
variable speed drives are responsible for poor power factor, and dynamically
varying power factor of the same drives can create voltage sags and swells. The
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effects of harmonic distortion, harmonic currents, and line notch ringing can be
mitigated using specially designed filters.
3. Power System Adequacy
When considering the installation of additional cranes to an existing power
distribution system, a power system analysis should be completed to determine
the adequacy of the system to support additional crane loads. Power quality
corrective actions may be dictated due to inadequacy of existing power
distribution systems to which new or relocated cranes are to be connected. In
other words, addition of power quality equipment may render a workable
scenario on an existing power distribution system, which would otherwise be
inadequate to support additional cranes without high risk of problems.
4. Environment
No issue might be as important as the effect of power quality on our
environment. Reduction in system losses and lower demands equate to a
reduction in the consumption of our natural nm resources and reduction in
power plant emissions. It is our responsibility as occupants of this planet to
encourage conservation of our natural resources and support measures which
improve our air quality
CHAPTER.3
UNIFIED POWER QUALITY CONDITIONER
The provision of both DSTATCOM and DVR can control the power
quality of the source current and the load bus voltage. In addition, if the DVR
and STATCOM are connected on the DC side, the DC bus voltage can be
regulated by the shunt connected DSTATCOM while the DVR supplies the
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required energy to the load in case of the transient disturbances in source
voltage. The configuration of such a device (termed as Unified Power Quality
Conditioner (UPQC)) is shown in Fig. This is a versatile device similar to a
UPFC. However, the control objectives of a UPQC are quite different from that
of a UPFC.
Fig 3.1
CONTROL OBJECTIVES OF UPQC
The shunt connected converter has the following control objectives
1. To balance the source currents by injecting negative and zero sequence
components required by the load
2. The compensate for the harmonics in the load current by injecting the
required harmonic currents
3. To control the power factor by injecting the required reactive current (at
fundamental frequency)
4. To regulate the DC bus voltage.
The series connected converter has the following control objectives
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1. To balance the voltages at the load bus by injecting negative and zero
sequence voltages to compensate for those present in the source.
2. To isolate the load bus from harmonics present in the source voltages, by
injecting the harmonic voltages
3. To regulate the magnitude of the load bus voltage by injecting the required
active and reactive components (at fundamental frequency) depending on the
power factor on the source side
4. To control the power factor at the input port of the UPQC (where the source
is connected. Note that the power factor at the output port of the UPQC
(connected to the load) is controlled by the shunt converter.
Operation of UPQC
The operation of a UPQC can be explained from the analysis of the idealized
equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 14.16. Here, the series converter is represented
by a voltage source VC and the shunt converter is represented by a current
source IC. Note that all the currents and voltages are 3 dimensional vectors with
CHAPTER.4
VOLTAGE SOURCE CONVERTERS (VSC):
A voltage-source converter is a power electronic device, which
can generate a sinusoidal voltage with any required magnitude, frequency and
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phase angle. Voltage source converters are widely used in adjustable-speed
drives, but can also be used to mitigate voltage dips. The VSC is used to either
completely replace the voltage or to inject the missing voltage. The missing
voltage is the difference between the nominal voltage and the actual. The
converter is normally based on some kind of energy storage, which will supply
the converter with a DC voltage. The solid-state electronics in the converter is
then switched to get the desired output voltage. Normally the VSC is not only
used for voltage dip mitigation, but also for other power quality issues, e.g.
flicker and harmonics.
The voltage source rectifier operates by keeping the dc link voltage at a
desired reference value, using a feedback control loop as shown in Fig. 12.36.
To accomplish this task, the dc link voltage is measured and compared with a
reference VREF. The error signal generated from this comparison is used to
switch the six valves of the rectifier ON and OFF. In this way, power can come
or return to the ac source according to dc link voltage requirements. Voltage VD
is measured at capacitor CD. When the current ID is positive (rectifier
operation), the capacitor CD is discharged, and the error signal ask the Control
Block for more power from the ac supply. The
Control Block takes the power from the supply by generating the appropriate
PWM signals for the six valves. In this way, more current flows from the ac to
the dc side, and the capacitor voltage is recovered. Inversely, when ID becomesnegative (inverter operation), the capacitor CD is overcharged, and the error
signal asks the control to discharge the capacitor and return power to the ac
mains. The PWM control not only can manage the active power, but also
reactive power, allowing this type of rectifier to correct power factor. In
addition, the ac current waveforms can be maintained as almost sinusoidal,
which reduces harmonic contamination to the mains supply. Pulsewidth-
modulation consists of switching the valves ON and OFF, following a pre-
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established template. This template could be a sinusoidal waveform of voltage
or current. For example, the modulation of one phase could be as the one shown
in Fig. 12.37. This PWM pattern is a periodical waveform whose fundamental is
a voltage with the same frequency
of the template. The amplitude of this fundamental, called VMOD in Fig. 12.37,
is also proportional to the amplitude of the template.
To make the rectifier work properly, the PWM pattern must generate a
fundamental VMOD with the same frequency as the power source. Changing
the amplitude of this fundamental
Fig 4.1
Operation principle of the voltage source rectifier.
FIGURE A PWM pattern and its fundamental VMOD. and its phase-shift with
respect to the mains, the rectifier can be controlled to operate in the four
quadrants: leading power factor rectifier, lagging power factor rectifier, leading
power factor inverter, and lagging power factor inverter. Changing the pattern
of modulation, as shown in Fig. 12.38, modifies the magnitude of VMOD.
Displacing the PWM pattern changes the phase-shift. The interaction between
VMOD and V (source voltage) can be seen through a phasor diagram. This
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interaction permits understanding of the four-quadrant capability of this
rectifier. In Fig. 12.39, the following operations are displayed: (a) rectifier at
unity power factor; (b) inverter at unity power factor; (c) capacitor (zero power
factor); and (d) inductor (zero power factor). In Fig. 12.39 Is is the rms value of
the source current is . This current flows through the semiconductors in the
same way as shown in Fig. 12.40. During the positive half cycle, the transistor
TN connected at the negative side of the dc link is switched ON, and the current
is begins to flow through TN .iTn.. The current returns to the mains and comes
back to the valves, closing a loop with another phase, and passing through a
diode connected at the same negative terminal of the dc link. The current can
also go to the dc load (inversion) and return through another transistor located at
the positive terminal of the dc link. When the transistor TN is switched OFF, the
current path is interrupted, and the current begins to flow through diode DP,
connected at the positive terminal of the dc link. This current, called iDp in Fig,
goes directly to the dc link, helping in the generation of the current idc . The
current idc charges the capacitor CD and permits the rectifier to produce dc
power. The inductances LS are very important in this process, because they
generate an induced voltage that allows conduction of the diode DP. A similar
operation occurs during the negative half cycle, but with TP and DN
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Changing VMOD through the PWM pattern.
Four-quadrant operation of the force-commutatedrectifier: (a) the PWM force-commutated rectifier; (b) rectifier operation at unity power factor; (c) inverter
operation at unity power factor; (d) capacitor operation at zero power factor;
and (e) inductor operation at zero power factor.
Under inverter operation, the current paths are different because the currents
flowing through the transistors come mainly from the dc capacitor CD. Under
rectifier operation, the circuit works like a Boost converter, and under inverter
operation it works as a Buck converter. To have full control of the operation of
the rectifier, their six diodes must be polarized negatively at all values of
instantaneous ac voltage supply. Otherwise, the diodes will conduct, and the
PWM rectifier will behave like a common diode rectifier bridge. The way to
keep the diodes blocked is to ensure a dc link voltage higher than the peak dc
voltage generated by the diodes alone, as shown in Fig. 12.41. In this way, the
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diodes remain polarized negatively, and they will conduct only when at least
one transistor is switched ON, and favorable instantaneous ac voltage
conditions are given. In Fig. 12.41 VD represents the capacitor dc voltage,
which is kept higher than the normal diode-bridge rectification value
nBRIDGE. To maintain this condition, the rectifier must have a control loop
like the one displayed in Fig.
Fig 4.2
Current waveforms through the mains, the valves, and the dc link.
VOLTAGE SOURCE INVERTER
Single-phase voltage source inverter can be found as half-bridge and full-
bridge topologies. Although the power range they cover is the low one, they are
widely used in power supplies, single-phase UPSs, and currently to form
elaborate high-power static power topologies, such as for instance, the multi cell
configurations that are reviewed The main features of both approaches are
reviewed and presented in the following.
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Types of VSI:
Half-Bridge VSI:
The power topology of a half-bridge VSI, where two large capacitors are
required to provide a neutral point N, such that each capacitor maintains a
constant voltage=2. Because the current harmonics injected by the operation of
the inverter are low-order harmonics, a set of large capacitors (C. and C) is
required. It is clear that both switches S. and S cannot be on simultaneously
because short circuit across the dc link voltage source vi would be produced.
There are two defined (states 1 and 2) and one undefined (state 3) switch state
as shown in Table. In order to avoid the short circuit across the dc bus and the
undefined ac output voltage condition, the modulating technique should always
ensure that at any instant either the top or the bottom switch of the inverter leg
is on.
shows the ideal waveforms associated with the half-bridge inverter shown in
Fig. 14.2. The states for the switches S. and S are defined by the modulating
technique, which in this case is a carrier-based PWM.
The Carrier-Based Pulse width Modulation (PWM) Technique: As
mentioned earlier, it is desired that the ac output voltage. Va N follow a given
waveform (e.g., sinusoidal) on a continuous basis by properly switching the
power valves. The carrier-based PWM technique fulfils such a requirement as it
defines the on and off states of the switches of one leg of a VSI by comparing a
modulating signal vc (desired ac output voltage) and a triangular waveform vD
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(carrier signal). In practice, when vc > vD the switch S. is on and the switch is
off; similarly, when vc < vD the switch S. is off and the switch S is on. A
special case is when the modulating signal vc is a sinusoidal at frequency fc and
amplitude ^vc , and the triangular signal vD is at frequency fD and amplitude
^vD. This is the sinusoidal PWM (SPWM) scheme. In this case, the modulation
index ma (also known as the amplitude-modulation ratio) is defined as
and the normalized carrier frequency mf (also known as the frequency-
modulation ratio) is
. vaN is basically a sinusoidal waveform plus harmonics, which features:
(a) the amplitude of the fundamental component of the ac output voltage ^vo1
satisfying the following expression:
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will be discussed later); (b) for odd values of the normalized carrier frequency
mf the harmonics in the ac output voltage appear at normalized frequencies fh
centered around mf and its multiples, specifically,
Where k . 2; 4; 6; . . . for l . 1; 3; 5; . . . ; and k . 1; 3; 5; . . .for l . 2; 4;
6; . . . ; (c) the amplitude of the ac output voltage harmonics is a function of the
modulation index ma and is independent of the normalized carrier frequency mf
form f > 9; (d) the harmonics in the dc link current (due to the modulation)
appear at normalized frequencies fp centered around the normalized carrier
frequency mf and its multiples, specifically,
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where k . 2; 4; 6; . . . for l . 1; 3; 5; . . . ; and k . 1; 3; 5; . .for l . 2; 4; 6; . . .
. Additional important issues are: (a) for small values of mf (mf < 21), the
carrier signal vD and the modulating signal vc should be synchronized to each
other(mf integer), which is required to hold the previous features; if this is not
the case, sub harmonics will be present in the ac output voltage; (b) for large
values of mf (mf > 21), the sub harmonics are negligible if an asynchronous
PWM
technique is used, however, due to potential very low-order sub
harmonics, its use should be avoided; finally (c) in the over modulation region
(ma > 1) some intersections between the carrier and the modulating signal are
missed, which leads to the generation of low-order harmonics but a higherfundamental ac output voltage is obtained; unfortunately, the linearity between
ma and ^vo1achieved in the linear region does not hold in the over modulation
region, moreover, a saturation effect can be observed
The PWM technique allows an ac output voltage to be generated that
tracks a given modulating signal. A special case is the SPWM technique (the
modulating signal is a sinusoidal) that provides in the linear region an ac output
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voltage that varies linearly as a function of the modulation index and the
harmonics are at well-defined frequencies and amplitudes.
These features simplify the design of filtering components. Unfortunately, the
maximum amplitude of the fundamental ac voltage is vi=2 in this operating
mode. Higher voltages are obtained by using the over modulation region (ma >
1); however, low-order harmonics appear in the ac output voltage.
Square-Wave Modulating Technique:
Both switches S. and S are on for one-half cycle of the ac output period.
This is equivalent to the SPWM technique with an infinite modulation index
ma. Figure 14.5 shows the following: (a) the normalized ac output voltage
harmonics are at frequencies h . 3; 5; 7; 9; . . . , and for a given dc link voltage;
(b) the fundamental ac output voltage features an amplitude given by
and the harmonics feature an amplitude given by
where the angles a1, a2, and a3 are defined as shown. The angles are found by
means of iterative algorithms as no analytical solutions can be derived. The
angles a1, a2, and
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are plotted for different values of in Fig. 14.7a. The general expressions
to eliminate an even N 1 .N 1 . 2; 4; 6; . . .) number of harmonics is
where a1, a2; . . . ; aN should satisfy a1 < a2 < _ _ _ < aN
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Fundamental magnitude control (N 1 . 3), the equations to be solved are:
where the angles a1; a2; a3, and a4 are defined as shown in Fig.b. The angles
a1; a2, a3 and a4 are plotted for different values of The general
expressions to
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eliminate an odd N -1 (N 1 . 3; 5; 7; . . .) number of harmonics are given by
Full-Bridge VSI:
The power topology of a full-bridge VSI. This inverter is similar to the
half-bridge inverter; however, a second leg provides the neutral point to the
load. As expected, both switches S1. and S1 (or S2. and S2) cannot be on
simultaneously because a short circuit across the dc link voltage source vi
would be produced. There are four defined and one undefined
The undefined condition should be avoided so as to be always capable of
defining the ac output voltage. In order to avoid the short circuit across the dc
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bus and the undefined ac output voltage condition, the modulating technique
should ensure that either the top or the bottom switch of each leg is on at any
instant. It can be observed that the ac output voltage can take values up to the dc
link value vi , which is twice that obtained with half-bridge VSI topologies.
Several modulating techniques have been developed that are applicable to full-
bridge VSIs. Among them are the PWM (bipolar and unipolar) techniques.
Bipolar PWM Technique:
States 1 and 2 (Table) are used to generate the ac output voltage in this
approach. Thus, the ac output voltage waveform features only two values,
which are vi and vi. To generate the states, a carrier-based technique can be
used a sine half-bridge configurations where only one sinusoidal modulating
signal has been used. It should be noted that the on state in switch S. in the half-
bridge corresponds to both switches S1. and S2 being in the on state in the full-
bridge configuration.
Similarly, S in the on state in the half-bridge corresponds to both
switches S1 andS2. being in the on state in the full-bridge configuration. This
is called bipolar carrier-based SPWM. The ac output voltage waveform in a full-
bridge VSI is basically a sinusoidal waveform that features a fundamental
component of amplitude ^vo1that satisfies the expression
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Fig. Chopping angles for SHE and fundamental voltage control in half-bridge
VSIs: (a) fundamental control and third, fifth, and seventh harmonic
elimination; (b) fundamental control.
Thus, the amplitude of the fundamental component and harmonics in the
ac output voltage are given by
It can also be observed in Fig. 14.12c that for a1 . 0 square wave operation is
achieved. In this case, the fundamental a output voltage is given by
where the fundamental load voltage can be controlled by the manipulation of
the dc link voltage
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CHAPTER.5
MODELLING OF THE UPQC
Figure shows the equivalent single-phase representation of the UPQC.
Figure . Equivalent single-phase representation of the UPQC.
The distorted supply voltage vs at the PCC can be represented by the sum
of two voltages, vf (fundamental) and vh (harmonics). The nonlinear load is
modeled by a current source iL composed of both fundamental and harmonics
that will be changed with different loads. The supply current is denoted by is
and the voltage across the nonlinear load is denoted by vL. The voltage vz in
Figure is the voltage drop across the line impedance Rl + jwLl. The series active
filter of the UPQC is modeled by a series Voltage Source Inverter (VSI) with
Lse and Cse as the second order low-pass interfacing filter and Rse as the losses
of the series VSI. The shunt active filter of the UPQC is represented by a shunt
VSI with Lsh and Csh as the second order low-pass interfacing filter and Rsh as
the losses of the shunt VSI. iCsh is the leakage capacitor current of the shunt
low-pass interfacing filter. represent the switching voltages
across the series and the shunt VSI outputs of the UPQC respectively.
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CHAPTER.6
PROPOSED MC-UPQC SYSTEM
A. Circuit Configuration
The single-line diagram of a distribution system with an MC-UPQC is shown in
Fig.
Fig. Single-line diagram of a distribution system with an MC-UPQC.
As shown in this figure, two feeders connected to two different
substations supply the loads L1 and L2. The MC-UPQC is connected to two
buses BUS1 and BUS2 with voltages of and , respectively. The shunt
part of the MC-UPQC is also connected to load L1 with a current of . Supply
voltages are denoted by while load voltages are Finally,
feeder currents are denoted by and load currents are Bus
voltages are distorted and may be subjected to sag/swell. The load L1
is a nonlinear/sensitive load which needs a pure sinusoidal voltage for proper
operation while its current is non-sinusoidal and contains harmonics. The load
L2 is a sensitive/critical load which needs a purely sinusoidal voltage and must
be fully protected against distortion, sag/swell, and interruption. These types of
loads primarily include production industries and critical service providers, such
as medical centers, airports, or broadcasting centers where voltage interruption
can result in severe economical losses or human damages.
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B. MCUPQC Structure
The internal structure of the MCUPQC is shown in Fig.
Fig. Typical MC-UPQC used in a distribution system.
It consists of three VSCs (VSC1, VSC2, and VSC3) which are connected
back to back through a common dc-link capacitor. In the proposed
configuration, VSC1 is connected in series with BUS1 and VSC2 is connected
in parallel with load L1 at the end of Feeder1. VSC3 is connected in series with
BUS2 at the Feeder2 end. Each of the three VSCs in Fig. 2 is realized by a
three-phase converter with a commutation reactor and high-pass output filter as
shown in Fig.
Fig. Schematic structure of a VSC.
The commutation reactor and high- pass output filter are connected
to prevent the flow of switching harmonics into the power supply. As shown in
Fig, all converters are supplied from a common dc-link capacitor and connected
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to the distribution system through a transformer. Secondary (distribution) sides
of the series-connected transformers are directly connected in series with BUS1
and BUS2, and the secondary (distribution)side of the shunt-connected
transformer is connected in parallel with load L1. The aims of the MC-UPQC
shown in Fig are:
1) to regulate the load voltage against sag/swell and disturbances in the
system to protect the nonlinear/sensitive load L1;
2) to regulate the load voltage against sag/swell, interruption, and
disturbances in the system to protect the sensitive/ critical load L2;
3) to compensate for the reactive and harmonic components of nonlinear load
current .
In order to achieve these goals, series VSCs (i.e., VSC1 and VSC3) operate as
voltage controllers while the shunt VSC (i.e., VSC2) operates as a current
controller.
C. Control Strategy
As shown in Fig., the MC-UPQC consists of two series VSCs and one shunt
VSC which are controlled independently. The switching control strategy for
series VSCs and the shunt VSC are selected to be sinusoidal pulse width-
modulation (SPWM) voltage control and hysteresis current control,
respectively. Details of the control algorithm, which are based on the dq
method [12], will be discussed later. Shunt-VSC: Functions of the shunt-VSC
are:
1) to compensate for the reactive component of load L1 current;
2) to compensate for the harmonic components of load L1 current;
3) to regulate the voltage of the common dc-link capacitor.
CHAPTER.7
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POWER-RATING ANALYSIS OF THE MC-UPQC
The power rating of the MC-UPQC is an important factor in terms of cost.
Before calculation of the power rating of each VSC in the MC UPQC structure,
two models of a UPQC are analyzed and the best model which requires the
minimum power rating is considered. All voltage and current phasors used in
this section are phase quantities at the fundamental frequency. There are two
models for a UPQCquadrature compensation (UPQC-Q) and inphase
compensation (UPQC-P). In the quadrature compensation scheme, the injected
voltage by the series- VSC maintains a quadrature advance relationship with the
supply current so that no real power is consumed by the series VSC at steady
state. This is a significant advantage when UPQC mitigates sag conditions. The
series VSC also shares the volt ampere reactive (VAR) of the load along with
the shunt-VSC, reducing the power rating of the shunt-VSC.
Fig. shows the phasor diagram of this scheme under a typical load power factor
condition with and without a voltage sag.
Fig. Phasor diagram of quadrature compensation. (a) Without voltage sag. (b)
With voltage sag.
When the bus voltage is at the desired value , the series-injected
voltage is zero [Fig.(a)]. The shunt VSC injects the reactive component of
load current , resulting in unity input-power factor. Furthermore, the shunt
VSC compensates for not only the reactive component, but also the harmonic
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components of the load current . For sag compensation in this model, the
quadrature series voltage injection is needed as shown in Fig. (b). The shunt
VSC injects in such a way that the active power requirement of the load is
only drawn from the utility which results in a unity input-power factor. In an
inphase compensation scheme, the injected voltage is inphase with the supply
voltage when the supply is balanced. By virtue of inphase injection, series VSC
will mitigate the voltage sag condition by minimum injected voltage. The
phasor diagram of Fig. explains the operation of this scheme in case of a voltage
sag.
Fig. Phasor diagram of inphase compensation (supply voltage sag).
CHAPTER.8
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SIMULATION RESULTS
The proposed MC-UPQC and its control schemes have been tested through
extensive case study simulations using PSCAD/ EMTDC. In this section,
simulation results are presented, and the performance of the proposed MC-
UPQC system is shown.
A. Distortion and Sag/Swell on the Bus Voltage
Let us consider that the power system in Fig. 2 consists of two three-phase
three-wire 380(v) (rms, L-L), 50-Hz utilities. The BUS1 voltage contains
the seventh-order harmonic with a value of 22%, and the BUS2 voltage
contains the fifthorder harmonic with a value of 35%. The BUS1 voltage
contains 25% sag between and 20% swell between
. The BUS2 voltage contains 35% sag between
and 30% swell between . The
nonlinear/sensitive load L1 is a three-phase rectifier
load which supplies an RC load of 10 and 30 F. Finally, the critical load L2
contains a balanced RL load of 10 and 100mH.
The MCUPQC is switched on at t=0.02 s. The BUS1 voltage, the
corresponding compensation voltage injected by VSC1, and finally load L1
voltage are shown in Fig.
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Fig. BUS1 voltage, series compensating voltage, and load voltage in Feeder1.
In all figures, only the phase a waveform is shown for simplicity. Similarly, the
BUS2 voltage, the corresponding compensation voltage injected by VSC3, and
finally, the load L2 voltageare shown in Fig.
Fig. BUS2 voltage, series compensating voltage, and load voltage in Feeder2.
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As shown in these figures, distorted voltages of BUS1 and BUS2 are
satisfactorily compensated for across the loads L1 and L2 with very good
dynamic response. The nonlinear load current, its corresponding compensation
current injected by VSC2, compensated Feeder1 current, and,
finally, the dc-link capacitor voltage are shown in Fig.
Fig. Nonlinear load current, compensating current, Feeder1 current, and
capacitor voltage.
CHAPTER.9
CONCLUSION
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In this paper, a new configuration for simultaneous compensation of voltage and
current in adjacent feeders has been proposed. The new configuration is named
multi-converter unified power-quality conditioner (MC-UPQC). Compared to a
conventional UPQC, the proposed topology is capable of fully protecting
critical and sensitive loads against distortions, sags/swell, and interruption in
two-feeder systems. The idea can be theoretically extended to
multibus/multifeeder systems by adding more series VSCs. The performance of
the MC-UPQC is evaluated under various disturbance conditions and it is
shown that the proposed MC-UPQC offers the following advantages:
1) power transfer between two adjacent feeders for sag/swell and interruption
compensation;
2) compensation for interruptions without the need for a battery storage system
and, consequently, without storage capacity limitation;
3) sharing power compensation capabilities between two adjacent feeders which
are not connected.
INDEX
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CHAPTER.1 INTRODUCTION
03
CHAPTER.2 POWER QUALITY
05
2.1 power quality problems
2.2 Benfits of power quality
CHAPTER.3 UNIFIED POWER QUALITY
CONDITIONER 15
CHAPTER.4 VOLTAGE SOURCE CONVERTERS
21
CHAPTER.5 MODELLING Of UPQC
45
CHAPTER.6 PROPOSED MC-UPQC SYSTEM
49
CHAPTER.7 POWER-RATING ANALYSIS OF THE MC-
UPQC 54
CHAPTER.8 SIMULATION RESULTS
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CHAPTER.9 CONCLUSION
69
CHAPTER.10 REFERENCES
70
TABLE OF FIGURES
Fig 3.1 : Unified Power Quality Conditioner 15
Fig 4.1 : Voltage Source Rectifier 22
Fig 4.2 : Voltage Source Inverter 26
Fig 5.1 : Equivalent single-phase representation of the UPQC 45
Fig. 6.1 : Single-line diagram of a distribution system with anMC-UPQC 49
Fig. 6.2 : Typical MC-UPQC used in a distribution system 50