APPLIED LINGUISTICS: BASIC CONCEPTS

BOOK OF REVIEWS

Organization: Johwyson S. Rodrigues – Belém, PA, Brazil: UFPA, FALEM,

What is Applied Linguistics? Márcia Alves and Nathália Guedes................................2

Linguistic Society of America. Camila Barreto and Simone Siqueira..........................4

What is Applied Linguistics? Amanda de Oliveira Palheta...........................................5

Applied Linguistics. Anderson Costa and Daiana Ramos………………….....…...….6

Steps to Learn a New Language & Design a Learning Management System. Johnes

Ruan..................................................................................................................................8

Languages in the contemporary world. Glauco Maurício Oliveira, Meg Caroliny dos

Santos Silva, and Rianne Moura Roque......................................................................10

Second language learning: key concepts and issues. Frederico Carvalho and Fabrícia

Albuquerque ..................................................................................................................11

Second Language Acquisition. Diego Ferreira and Fábio Carneiro...........................13

Input and interaction in Second Language. William Pereira and Suzete Silva............19

Socio-cultural perspectives on second language learning. Rafaela Campos and

Roberta Silva..................................................................................................................23

Focus on the language learner: Motivation, styles, and strategies. Liliana Barbosa and

Quezia…………………………………………………………………………………26

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What is Applied Linguistics? Washington, DC: 1992. Disponível em:

<http://www.cal.org/resources/digest/cal00001.html>. Acesso em: 05 de agosto de

2009.

Reviewers: Márcia Alves and Nathália Guedes – UFPA. What is Linguistics?

Linguistics is the study of language. A linguist can know and understand the

internal structure of a language without actually speaking it.

A linguist is concerned with a language as a human phenomenon. Linguists

study grammar, the social and psychological aspects of language use, and the

relationships among languages, both historical and present-day. The field of linguistics,

like any complex field, includes several major divisions: Formal Linguistics;

Sociolinguistics; Psycholinguistics; Applied Linguistics.

Formal Linguistics: is the study of the structures and processes of language,

that is, how language works and is organized. There are three main schools of thought

in formal linguistics. The traditional, or prescriptive it is grammar and how its typically

prescribe rules of correct or preferred usage; Structural linguistics are primarily

concerned with phonology, morphology, and syntax; The generative/transformational

was introduced by Chomsky in 1957, and he had traced a relationship between the

“deep structure” of sentences (what is in the mind) and their “surface structure” (what is

spoken or written). From transformational/generative grammar arose the theory of

Universal Grammar. This widely accepted theory starts from the perception that all

languages share certain linguistic features (universals).

Sociolinguistics: is the study of language as a social and cultural phenomenon.

The major divisions: Language Variation describes the relationship between

the use of linguistic forms and factors such as geography, social class, ethnic group,

age, sex, occupation, function, or style. The combination of these various factors results

in an individual’s idiolect. When a variety of language is shared by a group of speakers,

it is known as a dialect.

Language and Social Interaction is the province of language and its function in

the real world. Three subfields of sociolinguistics investigate this relationship. (1)

Pragmatics looks at how context affects meaning. As a function of context, the intended

meaning of an utterance is often different form its literal meaning. (2) Discourse

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analysis examines the way in which sentences relate in larger linguistic units, such as

conversational exchanges or written texts. (3) Ethnography of communication uses the

tools of anthropology to study verbal interaction in its social setting.

Language Attitudes studies explore how people react to language interactions

and how they evaluate others based on the language behavior they observe.

Language Planning is the process of implementing major decisions regarding

which languages should be used on a societal scale.

Psycholinguistics: is the study of the relationship between linguistic and

psychological behavior. Psycholinguistics study first and second language acquisition

and how humans store and retrieve linguistics information, referred to as verbal

processing. Language Acquisition. The study of how humans acquire language begins

with the study of child language acquisition. There are two hypotheses. The first,

deriving from the structuralism school of linguistics, holds that children learn language

through imitation and positive-negative reinforcement. This is known as the behaviorist

approach. The second, or innateness hypothesis, proposes that the ability to acquire

language is a biologically innate capacity. Verbal processing involves speaking,

understanding, reading, and writing, and therefore includes both the production of

verbal output and reception of the output of others.

Applied Linguistics: the findings of linguistics, like the findings of any other

theoretical study, can be applied to the solution of practical problems, as well as to

innovations in everyday areas involving language. This is the mandate of applied

linguistics. Applied linguists draw from theories of language acquisition to develop first

and second language teaching methodologies and to implement successful literacy

programs.

Applied linguists may also engage in language planning by developing

alphabets and grammars for unwritten languages and by writing dictionaries.

In short, applied linguistics applies the theories and tools of formal linguistics,

sociolinguistics, and psycholinguistics in a wide variety of socially useful ways.

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Linguistic Society of America. Washington, DC. Disponível em:<

http://www.lsadc.org/info/ling-fields-applied.cfm>. Acesso em: 05 de agosto de 2009.

Reviewers: Camila Barreto and Simone Siqueira – UFPA.

This text is about the history of the term “applied linguistics”, and it’s referred

to a broad range of activities that involve solving some language problems. In the early

days, the term as used both in the USA and in the Great Britain to refer to applying a

so-called ‘scientific approach’ to teaching foreign languages, including English for

nonnative speakers.

During the late 50’s and the beginning of the 60’s, the use of the term was

include what was then referred to as automatic translation. In 1964, following two of

preparatory work financed by the Concil of Europe, the Association Internationale

Appliqué, was founded and it’s first international congress as held in Nancy, France.

Papers for the congress were solicited in two distinct strands--- foreign language

teaching and automatic translation.

During the years , the focus on attention have continued to broaden . The mean

goal is to apply the findings and the techniques from research in linguistics and related

disciplines to solve practical problems. To an observer, the most notable change in

applied linguistics has been its rapid growth as an interdisciplinary field. In foreign

language teaching and translation, a partial sampling of issues was considered central to

the field of applied linguistics today includes topics such as language for special

purposes( e.g. language and communication problems related to aviation, language

disorders, law, medicine, science), language policy and planning, and language and

literacy issues.

Other applied linguists have been concerned with developing the most effective

programs possible to help adult newcorners to the US or other countries, many of

whom have limited if any prior education, develop literacy in the languages which they

will need for survival and for occupational purposes. Other topics currently of concern

to applied linguists are the broad issue of the optimal role of the mother tongue in the

education of culturally and linguistically diverse students, the language of persuasion

and politics, developing effective tools and programs for interpretation and translation,

and language testing and evaluation.

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COOK, V. What is Applied Linguistics? Newcastle University. Disponível em:< http://homepage.ntlworld.com/vivian.c/Writings/Shorts/WhatisALl.htm>. Acesso em: 05 de agosto de 2009.

Reviewers: Amanda de Oliveira Palheta – UFPA.

What is Applied Linguistics?

Vivian Cook shows us in her text the dificulties to define what applied linguistcs

is, what it is “made of” and what the teacher's role is. Moreover, there are too many

doubts about whether applied linguistics is related with languague teaching, linguistics

or description of language. However, the author makes clear that, in fatc, all of these

views exist among applied linguistics.Cook continues the text showing that some

applied linguists agree that improving teaching and linguistics are important, as long as

teachers keep up-to-date; that other applied linguists believe that other diciplines are

very importante while many others do not; also that many others think that applied

linguistics is applying theorical linguistics to actual data (e.g.: dictionaries) and so on.

In conclusion, applied linguistics are all the strategies that teachers can use in

class to solve specific language problems although applied linguistics means many

things to many people. In other words, there are a lot of ideas going on in applied

linguistics and the teacher needs to use them carefully, according to the class specific

needs and even creating new things in order to achieve the class goals.

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COOK, G. Applied Linguistics. Oxford, England: OUP, 2003.

Reviewers: Anderson Costa and Daiana Ramos – UFPA.

This text is an introduction to applied linguistics, with the most frequent

questions and what problems emerge with this language area and how to promote their

solutions. It's divided in topics or questions about applied linguistic.

1 – The need for Applied Linguistics:

In this topic there are an explanation about the dependency of human beens to

develop his natural activities in relation to the language. The author says that the

language is at the heart of human life, and that it's possible to do some activities without

language but this same are frequently developed through the language. They do them

without know about structure, without had read something about them, so the language

is a natural phenomenon beyond conscious control.

2 – Why Applied Linguistics?

According to Cook, we need to investigate and understand the facts of the

language use, to organize and formalize what we know to develop our rational

consideration and critical analysis. It is a relation about the problems in the world in

which language is implicated both educational and social.

3 – The history of Applied Linguistics:

The author explains that applied linguistics has been defined in different ways

over the years (1950s, 1960...), but the common definition is that the insights of

structural and functional linguists could be applied directly to second language teaching

and also in first language or literacy. Applied linguistics is, in 1970s, viewed as a

problem-solving and real-world language-based problems. In the final of the 1980s,

applied linguistics was related giving support in many disciplines like psychology;

sociology etc.

4 – Questions Applied Linguistics try to answer:

This topic is about discussions of the focus of applied linguistics, to whom it is

directed (learners, teachers, supervisors, lawyers, ...) and social services (test takers,

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policy developers, dictionary markers, translators...). At the same topic is made a list of

fields and subfields which are domain of Applied Linguistics (problems with language

learning, literacy, language contact, language inequality, language policy, language

assessment, language use, language and technology, translation and interpretation and

language pathology.).

5 – Defining Applied linguistics:

We find in this topic some definitions about the fields and what is related

Applied Linguistic, there are some examples of academic disciplines like professional

journals, funding resources for research projects and others. Here says too, that applied

linguistics is not simply to 'apply' linguistics to achieve solutions. Applied linguistics is

grounded in language use in the real world.

These topics were developed to clarify the ideas about what is applied linguistic

and what is related to. Still in question what problems it needs to interfere and how to

apply the solutions.

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Education Director. Steps to Learn a New Language & Design a Learning Management

System. Disponivel em:

<HTTP://www.lumana.com/education_director_website/language_learning/AL006.pdf

>. Acesso em: 22 de agosto de 2009.

Reviewer: Johnes Ruan – UFPA.

The text said about the concept or definition of a language. Talking about its

definition, about its Grammar rules, sounds and others in a general way, without

forgetting the specific ones. Then it’s listed some things that we know about the

language, such as: language has a grammatical system, language is meaningful,

language has social meaning and so on.

After that there are some closer looks through words, sentences, texts, listening

and speaking and communication.

It said that words have different meaning depending on the context. About

sentences, it said that is easily to get the general idea than specific one and a learner can

communicate with a less knowledge about grammatical structure. About the texts you

might obtain the general idea.

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COOK, G. Languages in the contemporary world. In: COOK, G. Applied Linguistics. Oxford, England: OUP, 2003.

Reviewers: Glauco Maurício Oliveira, Meg Caroliny dos Santos Silva, and Rianne Moura Roque – UFPA.

This text talks about the language, how it is a complex and adaptive system. The

language has a social function, it is used to human social interaction, its origins and

capacities are dependent on its role in our social life.

Language is a combined effect of many interacting constraints, including the

structure of thought processes, cognitive limitations, and socio pragmatic factors.

The usage of the language is based in grammar, in which the cognitive

organization of language is based directly on experience with it; they see grammar as a

network built up from the categorized instances of language use. Since the grammar is

based on usage, it contains many details of co-occurrence as well as a record of the

probabilities of occurrence and co-occurrence. The evidence for the impact of usage on

cognitive organization includes the fact that language users are aware of specific

instances of constructions that are conventionalized and the multiple ways in which

frequency of use has an impact on structure. There is indeed evidence from multiple

sources that such cognitive changes occur, and contribute to the shape of grammar.

They consider three phenomena: Speakers do not choose randomly from among all

conceivable combinatorial possibilities we produce utterances; Articulatory patters in

speech indicates that as words co-occur on speech, they gradually come to be retrieved

as chunks; Historical changes in language point toward a model on which patterns of

co-occurrence must be taken into account.

For them, language is a cultural evolutionary process that takes place a two

linked levels: replication and selection. Replicators are replicated, but with cumulating

errors resultant from mutation and recombination and in these ways variation is

generated. Selection is a process by which interactors in interaction. With their

environment cause replication to be differential: Some replicators are replicate more

than others, which in the extreme case lead to fixation of the former and extinction of

the latter.

Talking about of language acquisition usage-based theories, they hold that we

learn constructions while engaging in communication, through the “interpersonal

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communicative and cognitive processes that everywhere and always shape language.

The complete body of psycholinguistic research, which demonstrates language users´

exquisite sensitivity to the frequencies of occurrence of different constructions in the

language input and to the contingencies of their mappings of form and meaning I clear

testament of the influence of each usage event, and the processing of its component

constructions, upon the learners’ system .

There are some characteristics of language as a complex adaptive system: Two

levels of existence (as idiolect and as a communal language); Adaptation through

competing factors: Language adapts to the human brain.

Cognition, consciousness, experience, embodiment, brain, self, and human

interaction, society, culture, and history are all inexplicably intertwined in rich,

complex, and dynamic ways in language acquisition. Everything is connected. We

cannot understand these phenomena unless we understand their interplay.

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MITCHELL, R; MYLES, F. Second language learning theories: Second language learning: key concepts and issues. Second edition. London: Hodder Arnold, 2004. 5-28 p.

Reviewers: Frederico Carvalho and Fabrícia Albuquerque – UFPA.

This text is only the first chapter of the book Second Language Learning

Theories (second edition) called Second Language learning: key concepts and issues,

who is divided in seven main topics:

1.1 Introduction;

1.2 What makes for a good theory?;

1.3 Views on the nature of the language;

1.4 The language learning process;

1.5 Views of the language learner;

1.6 Links with social practice;

1.7 Conclusion.

On The beginning of the chapter the author provides an overview of the key

concepts that he will analyze, getting some perspectives and definitions about second

language learning (SLL). Clarifying that the “second language” is any other language

that someone learn that is not his “fist language” or “mother tonge”, and shows his

interest about all the process of learning: formal or informal.

To understand how the process of learn a language takes place is vital to be

conscious about how complex is this phenomenon and observe some aspects of the

language, like its nature, its culture, the way that people communicate, as well as how

all these aspects are interrelated and affect each other, in order to reach a property

theory of learning. However, it is clearly not enough to understand how the process

happens.

In order to achieve this goal there are some notions that are the base of this

complex communication system, that’s why is important to analyze some levels of

language, like: phonology, syntax, morphology, semantics and lexis, pragmatics, and

discourse. Competence and performance take part of this analyzes because they have

attested samples of language in use, in spite of some contradictions between them.

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After having obtained this base, the author starts the analysis of the language

learning process in it self, observing aspects of:

Nature and nurture, that discuss about how much the innate predispositions

derives from human learning, and how much it derives from our social and cultural

experiences;

Modularity, that discuss about how the learning process takes place in our

mind, through a modular or a unitary system;

Modularity and second language learning, that discuss about the existence of

an innate mechanism that helps in the SLL;

“Systematicity” and variability in SLL, where can be observed some variables

and systems that are part of the learning process, like errors and the influence of the first

language;

Creativity and routines in SLL, when can be analyzed the way that the

learner’s start to produce utterances and how they apply it to establish communication;

Incomplete success and fossilization, an analysis about why some older second

language learners have difficulties of learning;

Cross-linguistic influences in SLL, when can be seen a phenomenon called

language transfer, as a result of the influence of the fist language on the second and

vice-versa.

The relationship between second language use and SLL, a discussion about

what kind of benefits it can develop, observing aspects like competence and

performance, comprehensible input, comprehensible output, interaction, negotiation of

meaning, etc.

All of these concepts are very important for the process of learning, however as

important as the aspects of the learning process are the views of the language learner,

taking account his needs and purposes, the differences between individual learners,

observing cognitive and affective aspects, the learner as social being, observing aspects

like social class, gender, ethnicity, and others.

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SPADA, N. Second Language Acquisition. In N. Schmitt (Ed.), An introduction to

applied linguistics. London: Arnold, 2002.

Reviewers: Diego Ferreira and Fábio Carneiro – UFPA.

What is Second Language Acquisition?

Second language acquisition research focuses on the developing knowledge and

use of a language by children and adults who already know at least one other language.

The theoretical importance is related to our understanding of how languages is

represented in the mind and whether there is a difference between the way language is

acquired and processed and the way other kinds of information are acquired and

processed.

Theories of L2 Learning.

Both linguistic and psychological theories have influenced research and theory

in second language acquisition. One of the fundamental differences between theories

developed in these discipline in the role they hypothesize for internal and external

factors on the learning process. Some linguistics have suggested that language

acquisition is based on the presence of a specialized module of the human mind

containing innate knowledge of principles common to all languages. In contrast, most

psychologists have argued that language is processed by general cognitive mechanisms

that are responsible for a wide range of human learning and information processing and

requires no specialized module.

Linguistic Perspectives

Universal Grammar.

The idea that these exists a universal grammar (UG) of human languages

originated with Chonsky's (1968) view on first language (L1) acquisition. He was

looking for an explanation of the fact that virtually all children learn language at a time

in their cognitive development when they experience difficulty grasping other kinds of

knowledge which appear to be far less complex than language. Furthermore, it was

observed that even children with impaired intellectual ability were usually successful in

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acquiring the language they heard around them. Chomsky argued, furthermore, that the

kind of information which mature speakers of a language eventually have of their L1

could not have been learned from the language they hear around then. This problem

came to be called the logical problem of language acquisition.

Chomsky pointed out that children were exposed to samples of language that

were incomplete and sometimes degenerate ( for example, slips of the tongue, false

starts, etc.).

Chomsky's theory of UG was offered as an explanation for L1 acquisition and,

although it has been questioned in that context, it is widely accepted as at least a

plausible explanation for L1 acquisition. The question of whether UG can also explain

L2 is controversial. One of the reason for this controversy is the claim that there is a

critical period for language acquisition.

Researches who study second language acquisition from a UG perspective seek

to discover a language user's underlying linguistic competence (what a language user

knows) instead of focusing on his or her linguistic performance ( what a language user

actually says or writes).

Monitor Theory

This theory shares a number of the assumptions of the UG approach but its

scope is specifically second language acquisition. As with UG, the assumption is that

human being acquire language without instruction or feedback on errors.

Krashen developed this theory in the 1970 and presented it in terms of five hypotheses.

The fundamental hypothesis of monitor theory is that there is a difference between

acquisition and learning.

Acquisition is hypothesized to occur in a manner similar to L1 acquisition, that is, with

the learner's focus on communicating messages and meanings, learning is described as a

conscious process, one in which the learner's attention is directed to the rules and forms

of the language. The monitor hypothesis suggests that, although spontaneous speech

originates in the acquired system, what has been learned may be used as a monitor to

edit speech if the L2 learner has the time and the inclination to focus on the accuracy of

the message.

Psychological Perspectives.

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Behaviourism.

For much of the first half of the twentieth century, behaviourism dominated

psychology and education and, consequently, theories of L2 learning and teaching.

Behaviouriam was based on the view that all learning- including language learning-

occurs through a process of imitation, practice, reinforcement and habit formation.

According to behaviourism, the environment is crucial not only because it is the source

of the linguistic stimuli that learners need in order to form associations between the

words they hear and the objects and events they represent but also because it provides

feedback on learner's performance. Behaviourists claimed that when learners correctly

produce language that approximates what they are exposed to in the input, and these

efforts receive positive reinforcement, habits are formed (Skinner, 1957).

Behaviourism came under attack when Chomsky (1968) questioned the notion that

children learn their first language by repeating what they hear in the surrounding

environment. He argued that children produce novel and creative utterances- one that

they would never have heard in their environment.

Cognitive Psychology

Since the late 1980s,there has been a revival of interest in psychological theories

of language learning. McLaughlin(1987)and others argued Thar, contrary to the

hypotheses of linguistic theories,there is no reason to assume that language acquisition

requires specific brain structures used uniquely for language acquisition. Cognitive

psychologists hypothesized that second language acquisition, like other

learning,requires the learner,s attention and effort-whether or not the learner is fully

aware of what was being attended to. Some information processing theories suggested

that language,like other skilled activity,is first acquired through intentional learning of

what is called declarative knowledge and that,through practice,the declarative

knowledge can become procedural knowledge. Other theorists make a similar contrast

trolled processing is not necessarily intentional. Controlled processing occurs when a

learner is acessing information that is new or rare or complex. Controlled processing

requires mental effort and takes attention away from other controlled processes.

Connectionism.

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Another psychological approach to understanding language learning is that taken

in connectionist, emergentist and parallel distributed processing models (Ellis, 1999,

Rumelhart and MacClelland, 1986). These approaches are like the behaviourist

approach in the same that are frequently encountered together.

According to these views, the brain creates networks which connect words or phrases to

other words or phrases ( as well as to events and objects) which occur at the same time.

It is suggested that these links (or connections) are strengthened when learners are

repeatedly exposed to linguistic stimuli in specific contexts. For example, when L2

learners produce I go and She goes, the latter does not reflect an underlying knowledge

of a rule for the placement of 's' with the third person singular. Rather, the connection

between She and goes is thought to be established through high-frequency exposure to

these co-occurring structures in the linguistic input. The pronoun she activates goes and

the pronoun I triggers go because the learner has heard these forms in combination

many many times.

Multidimensional Model.

One of the central question within psychological accounts of second language

acquisition is why it is that L1 and L2 learners go through a series of predictable stages

in their acquisition of grammatical features. Slobin (1973) proposed operating principles

to help explain what L1 learners found easier or harder to process and learn. Within

second language acquisition, the Multidimensional Model represents a way to relate

underlying cognitive process to stages in the L2 learner's development.

The Multidimensional Model was originally developed as a result of studies of the

acquisition of German word order and later, on the basis of research with L2 learners of

English (Pienemann, 1989). In this research, L2 learners were observed to acquire

certain syntactic and morphological features of the L2 in predictable stages. These

features were referred to as developmental.

Other features, referred to as variational, appeared to be learned by some but not all

learners and, in any case, did not appear to be learned in fixed sequence.

Interactionist Perspectives.

Some theorists who work primarily within a second language acquisition

framework assume that a great deal of language learning takes place through social

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interaction, at least in part because interlocutors adjust their speech to make it more

accessible to learners. Some of the L2 research in this framework is based on L1

research into children's interaction with their caregivers and peers. L1 studies showed

that children are often exposed to a specialized variety of speech which is tailored to

their linguistic and cognitive abilities. When native speakers engage in conversation

with L2 learners, they may also adjust their language in ways intended to make it more

comprehensible to the learner. Furthermore, when L2 learners interact with each other

or with native speaker they use a variety of interaction techniques and adjustments in

their efforts to negotiate meaning. These adjustments include modifications and

simplifications in all aspects of language, including phonology, vocabulary, syntax and

discourse.

Sociocultural Perspectives

Theorists working within a sociocultural perspective of L2 learning operate from

the assumption that there is an intimate relationship between culture and mind, and that

all learning is first social then individual. It is argued that through dialogic

communication, learners jointly construct knowledge and this knowledge is later

internalized by the individual. Like cognitive psychologists, sociocultural theorists

assume that the same general learning mechanisms apply to language learning as with

other forms of knowledge.

Developmental Sequence

In the late 1960s and especially in the 1970s, a number of researches studied

second language acquisition in ways that were based on previous work in L1

acquisition. This was reflected in the methods which were used to investigate

interlanguage, the specific linguistic features under investigation, and as we saw earlier

in this chapter, the theories proposed to explain language development.

One of the most influential studies of the acquisition of L1 English was Brown's (1973)

longitudinal research on the language development of three children. One part of that

study focused on how the children acquired grammatical morphemes such as possessive'

S and past tense -ed. Brown and colleagues (1973) found that children acquired these

forms in a similar order. Other L1 studies showed that children acquired syntactic

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patterns such as interrogative and negative sentences of the L1, in a series of stages that

are common to all children learning the same L1.

Conclusion

Since the 1960s, second language acquisition research has, in some ways,

become a field in its own right, with numerous conferences and journals devoted

entirely to studies of L2 learning. In 1980 it was possible to read almost everything that

had been written about second language acquisition theory and research and to keep up

to date on new studies. Today, the field of second language acquisition has enormous

scope and depth both in terms of the variety of topics under investigation and the

research approaches used to investigate them.

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MITCHELL, R; MYLES, F. Input and interaction in Second Language Learning In: Second Language Learning Theories. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.

Reviewers: William Pereira and Suzete Silva – UFPA.

Mitchell investigates through 21 text parts and subparts the role of input and

interaction in the development of learner’s interlanguage through reviews of many

approaches and researches which investigate input-interaction relationship in first and

second language acquisition through hypothesis and empirical/descriptive experiments.

Furthermore, she reviews the importance of output, its the role and effectiveness of

error interventions (feedback, recasts, requests, negative and positive evidences), as well

as the turning process of input to intake (attention, consciousness-raising, focus on

form)

In the first main topic, Mitchell reviews the possible relationships between

Interaction and Input. According to Krashen, humans acquire a language by

understanding messages or receiving a comprehensible input. In the process to turn

input to intake, the researcher proposes three stages, among them he describes the

understanding of a second language as “I” (the learner’s current stage) plus “1” (the

next level by understanding input containing). However, this hypothesis is not easily

testable and seems to be likely mere empirical evidence; it also does not demonstrate

clearly the nature of “I” in its characteristics and language aspects application. The

further two stages described by Krashen are: i the notion of a gap between second

language I + 1 form and the interlanguage rules and; ii the reappearance of I + 1 form

with minimal frequency.

Empirical experiments bring us outcomes relating linguistic/conversational

adjustments, as linguistic modifications, as a promoting feature to comprehension of

input, consequently providing acquisition through an initial interaction. According to

Long’s ideas, the modification of the interactional structure of conversation – i.e:

negotiation – helps people to comprehend input, thus promotes the conditions to

language acquisition. Long’s further ideas on interaction hypothesis state input and

linguistic environment with “learner’s internal factors” as facilitative features to

language development.

Pica et alii, through a dyadic research, have found that interactional adjustments

are more effective in promoting comprehensible input than linguistic adjustments alone.

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Pica and colleagues propose, as their research findings, that interaction “results in an

input that was more complex than input that was modified according to conventional

criteria of linguistic simplification”. During their experiment, they perceived learners

who were allowed to negotiate the meaning of an unmodified script increased their

comprehension hence interaction modifications of input. According to Mackey, second

language development can be facilitated through interaction. However, it seems

necessary a stronger theoretical basis to make clear the relation between interaction and

acquisition.

As the second main topic, Mitchell treats on error interventions and its

relationship with input. In first language acquisition, it is not certain the necessity of

feedback to the acquisition of the core aspect of the language, as well as it is not clear

the relation of recasts in promoting grammatical development. In Oliver’s research on

recast, learners incorporated 10% of the recasts into their following utterances. The

researcher conceived recast as a tool students use in their following utterances, using as

an opportunity to produce more target-like utterances.

Researchers describe the possibility of corrections produced by learners after

negative evidence can be forgotten and do not affect interlanguage. In spite of, the main

assumptions on negative evidence describe its possibilities to benefit students

developmentally ready.

The experience in teaching career lead us to believe interaction as an important tool to

make increase students language development likely it may happens in acquisition of

the first language, and also the recasts and negative evidence can provide interest

results, in long terms, if done continually, even to lower level students.

21 

 

MITCHELL, R; MYLES, F. Socio-cultural perspectives on second language learning. In: Second Language Learning Theories. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.

Reviewers: Rafaela Campos and Roberta Silva – UFPA.

This text is going to talk about some theorists who research the language learning in

social terms, and show target language interaction not only as autonomous and internal

learning mechanism. In this chapter, the author present a little about Vygotsky theory’s

called ‘socio-cultural’. Nowadays some interpretations and modifications to his original

idea are called ‘neo-Vygotskyan’.

Lantolf (2000), one of Vygotsky’s successors, said that the human forms to mental

activity are mediated according to Vygotsky (1987). For Vygotsky, the human don’t act

directly on the physical world, but using some tools and activities as artifacts, like

symbolic tools (e.g.: numbers, music and language) or signs to mediate and regulate

relationships. Based on Thorne (2000) and Warschauer (2007), Lantolf exemplified the

mediated learning with contemporary example that is the use of computer, it means a

new written communication through technology, like chats and so on.

According to socio-cultural theory, learning is a mediated process, or better, a socially

mediated which the learner can interact and share with others, solving problem and

discussion. For this, some process are claimed like other-regulation (the process which

someone that knows more and have skills, like a teacher, will correct and help a

beginner learner), self-regulation (when the learner shared knowledge and

informations, worked in collaborative way and appropriate, he/she will able to self-

regulation), scaffolding (a process of learn step by step), ZPD (the “place” where the

learner is more productive), microgenesis (is the local learning process for acquiring

new knowledge or skill), private and inner speech (the children or a learner talk to and

for themselves without external partner’s presence; for Piaget it’s a kind of ‘children’s

egocentrism’; for Vygotsky private speech becomes inner speech) and activity theory

(it’s the same collaborative interaction, and according to Donato and McCornick,

contain a subject, an object, actions and operations).

After that, the text shows how the socio-cultural theory is applied with some

situations to exemplify. The private speech is viewed in naturalistic studies of child

SLL. The author says how happens the appropriation by the child of new lexical items,

the process of encoding and transmission message, object and self-regulation

22 

 

(information process models) and so on. Amy Ohta (2000) had a research using

individual microphones to recorder learner’s private second language speech, and

identifies three main types of this speech: the most common was the repetition (which

learners repeated privately some things like new lexical items), vicarious responses

(which they respond privately a question from the teacher) and manipulation (when they

construct their own SL utterances).

How new language knowledge is supposed to arise in social interaction? How

is it internalized by the learner? According to the text, naturalistic studies work on

sharing and transferring knowledge between speakers. A child, for example, appropriate

and use a new word that was offered by an adult.

An input or interaction perspective defend the negotiation of meaning or

conversational repair as facts which contribute to the leaner's acquisitional stage.

However, Vygostskyan perspective says that second language system is build up

through the appropriation of a new lexical item from a native speaker. This process is

called microgenesis.

Following the view of the Zone of Proximal Development, there is an

interaction between an "expert" who can be the teacher, or a native speaker; and the

"novice" who may be the learner. Based on this theory, Aljaafreh and Lantolf worked

on the idea of one-to-one feedback from a language tutor on weekly writing

assignments. the main point is that the tutor identify the error and the learner scaffold

the learner to correct it, there is a sentence from the text that summarizes this idea: " the

idea is to offer just enough assistance to encourage and guide the learner to participate

in the activity and to assume increased responsibility for arriving at the appropriate

performance" (Aljaafreh and Lantolf, p. 469) p. 210.

The study of Nassaji and Swain is follows this previous theory, but in this case,

if the learner doesn't respond, the tutor has to provide a more explicit feedback until the

learner identify the error.

Socio-cultural theorists have expanded Vygotsky's formulation of the Zone of

Proximal Development. Vygotsky defends the interaction between "novice" and

"expert" but the current socio-cultural theorists include the idea of collaborative

activities, they can be pair work or group work.

Second language learning researchers taking into consideration the socio-

cultural view attempt to apply a general theory of cognition. First, the dissociation of

23 

 

social and psychological aspects is no accepted. Learning is seen as a social and inter-

mental activity which happens in the ZPD. This idea is associated to Chomsky concepts

of language competence and performance. Competence is related to the knowledge

people already carry in mind and performance is how this learner is going to use it,

that's why social and psychological aspects cannot be separated, one process depends on

the other.

Social-cultural theory sees language as a tool for thought, in this case, language

itself is not the main point, learners will not focus their attention to structure or form,

but they will use the language to solve problems. Communication is seen as the

principal fact to construct knowledge which is first developed inter-mentally, and then

appropriated and internalized by individuals.

According to social-cultural perspectives, language learning is seen as first

social, then individual, first inter-mental then intra-mental. The learner can construct the

leaning environment which they control through their choices and goals during the

learning process. There is an integration of social-cultural and cognitives aspects,

according to Ohta, she sees private speech giving opportunities for repetition and

rehearsal of new language items. In spite of that, there are some researchers who believe

that new language is not only co-constructed but internalized and re-used.

To sum up, all these theories are factors that contribute to a better

understanding SLL, these ideas contribute to learner and teachers choose better

strategies during the learning process and going deeper, they are able to understand

what is behind the process of learning a language.

24 

 

COHEN, A. D; DÖRNYEI, Z. Focus on the language learner: Motivation, styles, and

strategies. In N. Schmitt (Ed.), An introduction to applied linguistics. London:

Arnold, 2002. 170-190 p.

Reviewers: Liliana Barbosa and Quezia – UFPA.

In order to reach the success in learning a foreign or second language there are

some factors to take in consideration such as the duration of the course, the abilities of

the teacher, the quality of the textbook and so on. But the authors emphasize the chapter

on the characteristics of the language learner and the three factors that increase the

effectiveness of instruction.

Cohen & Dörnyei start discussing about the characteristics that are out of the

teacher’s control that are age, gender and language aptitude. The relation between

language learning and age is traditionally viewed through “the younger the better

principle” which theorizes that the language learning has a critical period where the

person need to start young to learn the language and consequently reach the native-like

pronunciation. However, the authors inform that there are researches that show that this

principle is only valid in environments where the exposure is constant and natural to the

L2 (for example, learning French in France). The principle does not work in typical

classroom environments where the exposure is relatively small.

The second factor that is beyond the teacher’s control is the gender. The authors

do not discuss very much about it. It is only said that researches show that the girls

outdo the boys in language learning. The third factor out of the teacher’s control is the

language aptitude. This factor is known as the main one that makes the difference

among the learners. Someone with high aptitude will pick up the L2 relatively easily,

whereas for another person the same level of proficiency can only be achieved by means

of hard work and persistence. However, the language aptitude is not a determinant

factor to learn a language.

From now on, Cohen & Dörnyei discuss the factors that can increase the

effectiveness of instruction: motivation, learning styles and learner strategies. The

authors start the discussion by motivation. It is usually said that without it nothing really

happens. This factor has a social nature because L2 is not only a communication code

but also the culture where it is spoken. This is an interesting point because how can anti-

25 

 

American person can learn the English language if he or she dislike the people of this

country. In other words, if you like Japanese people and culture, probably it will be

easier to learn Japanese language than English. The authors also describe the motivation

as a dynamic process. This means that motivation is in continuous process. It is cited

that motivation undergoes a cycle that has three phases. Respectively, the motivation

needs to be generated (choice motivation); the generated motivation needs to be actively

maintained and protected while the particular action lasts (executive motivation); and

the third one deals with the learners’ retrospective evaluation of how thing went

(motivational retrospection).

The authors discuss the motives to learn an L2 such as the desire to interact with

L2 group and potential pragmatic gains of L2 as better job. Moreover, they add another

aspect of choice motivation that is the expectancy of success and perceived coping

potential. The most important aspect of executive motivation is related to the perceived

quality of the learning experience. Another aspect is autonomy. The last main phase of

the motivational process, motivational retrospective, involves the process whereby

learners look back and evaluate how things went.

Cohen & Dörnyei describe the learning styles as relatively stable and so the

teachers may not have much influence on this learner variable. However, they can

modify the learning tasks they use in their classes in a way that may bring the best out

of the particular learners with particular learning style preferences. There are numerous

identified styles such as visual, auditory, global, particular, extroverted, introverted and

so on.

Moreover, the authors discuss the learner strategies that it is factor whose

characteristics is the active and creative participation of the student in the learning

process through the application of individualized learning techniques. The learner

strategies can be categorized in language learning strategies and language use strategies.

The first one refers to the conscious and semi-conscious thoughts used by the learner to

reach some aspect of the target language. And the second one refers to the strategies for

using the language that has been learned not completely. The language use strategies is

subdivided in retrieval strategies, rehearsal strategies, communication strategies, cover

strategies. The authors emphasize the communication strategies (strategies used to

convey a meaningful message) because the students can use them to steer the

conversation away from problematic area or subject that he or she does not know.

26 

 

Moreover, Cohen & Dörnyei call the attention that the communication strategies may or

not have impact on learning.

The authors classify the strategies according to skill areas. In this way, there are

receptive skills represented by listening and reading, and productive ones, speaking and

writing. However, there are other skills to take in consideration: strategies related to

translation and vocabulary also are important to mention.

According to the authors, there is a set of strategies which learners can use to

increase their commitment to the language learning. This set is called ‘self-motivating’

strategies, and it refers to the mechanisms used by the learners to motivate themselves

to learn a language. The authors believe that learners have to be aware of this process

and self- motivation strategies are essential to learn a language.

After the classification, the authors suggest some steps for Style and Strategies-

based instruction, that is try to help the learners be more conscious and systematic to the

use of strategies that they already use or the ones that they will use (Dörnyei, 1995;

weaver and Cohen, 1997; Cohen, 1998). Taking into consideration the learners styles

preferences to select the strategies which fit better to accomplish the tasks.

As a conclusion the authors emphasize the fact that the style and strategies are

interrelated. The teacher’s role is to make the student aware of the existence of learning

strategies, and on the other side the learners have to use them according to which style

they have. The learner who is conscious about his learning style have more chances to

develop the learning strategies, in this way beaming more productive.