GHG Emissions: Mitigation Efforts in the Arab … · 14 CHAPTER 2 GHG EMISSIONS: MITIGATION EFFORTS...

GHG Emissions:Mitigation Efforts in the Arab Countries

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IBRAHIM ABDEL GELIL

CHAPTER 2

II.. IINNTTRROODDUUCCTTIIOONN

The ultimate objective of the United NationsFramework Convention on Climate Change(UNFCCC) is the stabilization of greenhousegas concentrations in the atmosphere at a levelthat would prevent dangerous anthropogenicinterference with the climate system.Accordingly, under Article 4.1(b) of theConvention, all Parties, including the Arabcountries, are required to undertake efforts toreduce greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions andor enhance GHG sinks (UNFCCC, 1992).

As climate change is a global problem, it callsfor a global solution taking into considerationthe principle agreed upon in the Rio declara-tion in 1992, namely the principle of “com-mon but differentiated responsibilities.” Thisimplies that developed countries, which are his-torically responsible for the largest part of theaccumulated GHGs in the atmosphere, shouldtake the lead in reducing GHG emissions giventheir higher technological and financial capa-bilities. Developing countries, including theArab countries, are requested to do their best toadopt development activities utilizing less ener-gy, less water, and fewer raw materials, and toproduce less waste.

Mitigation refers to efforts to reduce green-house gas emissions and to capture greenhousegases through land use changes such as foresta-

tion or carbon capture and storage in deep geo-logical formations. Policies and measures toreduce greenhouse gas emissions includeimproving energy efficiency to reduce energyconsumption per unit of economic output,switching to low or zero carbon fuels such asswitching from oil to natural gas, and usingrenewable energy sources such as solar andwind energy.

This chapter discusses the efforts undertakenby Arab countries to mitigate GHG emissions.It should be noted that such mitigation effortsare not necessarily undertaken within nationalclimate change policies; rather, in mostinstances they have been adopted to achievecertain economic, social, or environmentalobjectives. This chapter draws mainly on twosources of information, national communica-tions of some Arab countries submitted as partof their obligations within the UNFCCC andinformation available in the public domain. Atpresent, 14 Arab countries have submitted theirinitial national communications; none has sub-mitted their second communications yet.Initial national communications are meant tobe the major source of information on the stepstaken to mitigate climate change. So far, how-ever, they rarely include detailed assessments ofpast and/or ongoing mitigation projects oractivities; they focus instead on projects, activi-ties or programs and measures that are envis-aged for the future. Among the 14 initialnational communications investigated, onlySaudi Arabia’s report does not contain a sectionon mitigation. Most of the initial nationalcommunications have become outdated assome date back to as early as 1997 (Jordan),while the most recent one is that of the UAE(2007) (Table 1).

Apart from the initial national communica-tions, documentations of Arab efforts to reduceGHG emissions are very scarce. Thus, it is like-ly that some of the ongoing or planned activi-ties have been overlooked due to a lack of infor-mation. On the other hand, whenever enoughdata was available, various Arab experiences onspecific mitigation areas are highlighted.

The Council of Arab Ministers Responsible forthe Environment (CAMRE) at its 19th sessionin 2007 adopted the Arab Ministerial

GHG EMISSIONS: MITIGATION EFFORTS IN THE ARAB COUNTRIESCHAPTER 214

FIRST NATIONAL COMMUNICATIONS OF THEARAB COUNTRIESTABLE 1

First national Communication Country2001 Algeria2005 Bahrain2003 Comoros2002 Djibouti1999 Egypt1997 Jordan1999 Lebanon2002 Mauritania2001 Morocco2005 Saudi Arabia2003 Sudan2001 Tunisia2007 United Arab Emirates2001 YemenSource: http://unfccc.int/national_reports/non-annex_i_natcom/items/2979.php

Declaration on Climate Change, which consti-tutes the basis for future action and reflects theArab position in dealing with climate changeissues. The declaration stated that “Mitigationprograms shall focus on: the production anduse of cleaner fuels, improving the efficiency ofenergy use in all sectors, diversifying energysources in accordance with the prevailing eco-nomic and social conditions, expanding the useof cleaner production techniques and environ-mental friendly technologies, as well as expand-ing the use of economic incentives to encour-age more efficient products, along with speedyendeavours to conclude negotiations in theWTO to define lists of environmental goods soas to reduce or lift customs restrictions inaccordance, and the utilization of carbon trad-ing and its markets” (CAMRE, 2007).Currently, CAMRE is leading efforts to devel-op an Arab climate change action plan.

IIII.. TTHHEE AARRAABB EENNEERRGGYY SSEECCTTOORR

The energy sector in the Arab region has beenand will continue to play a critical role in theregion’s socioeconomic development. Oil rev-enues, estimated at $419 billion in 2006, havebeen the major source of income in most of theArab countries, especially in the Gulf region.According to the Arab Unified EconomicReport, the oil and gas sector makes up about40% of the total Arab GDP. The same reportestimated that Arab countries hold nearly 58% ofthe world’s oil reserves, and nearly 30% of theworld’s gas reserves. In 2006, the region account-ed for nearly 32% of the world’s oil production,and 12.5% of the world’s gas production (LAS,2007). The Arab countries rely heavily on oil andgas to meet domestic energy demand, they bothaccount for nearly 97.5% of the total Arab ener-gy consumption. The average per capita energyconsumption level in the Arab countries (nearly1.5 tonnes of oil equivalent, or TOE) liesbetween some developing countries such asChina (1.3 TOE), India (0.5 TOE), and Brazil(1.1 TOE), and some developed economies suchas the US (7.2 TOE), Japan (4.3 TOE), andAustralia (5.8 TOE). There are remarkable dis-parities in per capita energy consumptionamongst different Arab countries dependingmainly on income levels, standard of living,degree of urbanization and climatic conditions.

The figure ranges from as low as 0.33 TOE inYemen to as high as 22.07 TOE in Qatar (IEA,2008).

Industry is the major energy consuming sector inthe Arab countries, accounting for about 45% ofthe total consumption followed by the transportsector (32%). The residential, commercial andagricultures sectors make up the rest. This pat-tern of energy consumption determines themajor sources of the GHG emissions, and inmany instances identifies the policy priorities andmeasures needed to reduce such emissions.

Measures to mitigate GHG emissions

Measures to mitigate GHG emissions includethose which reduce GHG emissions from differ-ent anthropogenic activities as well as thosewhich enhance carbon sinks. Major sources ofGHG emissions are the energy sector, industrialsector, and the agriculture sector. In the energysector, measures to mitigate GHG emissionscover the supply and demand sides. Measures inthe supply side include energy efficiency inpower generation and oil refining, use of com-bined heat and power to produce electricity andwater, fuel switching away from carbon fuels,electricity imports though regional electricitynetworks, reduction of losses in transmission anddistribution, and power generation using renew-able energy resources such as wind and solar.

On the demand side, measures to improve ener-gy efficiency in the major consuming sectors suchas industry, transport, and residential and com-mercial sectors, include efficient lighting systems,improving efficiency of cooling and refrigeration,combustion efficiency improvements, recovery ofwaste heat, and many others.

These measures include improving energy effi-ciency throughout the economy, diversifyingaway from fossil fuels, and promoting the use ofrenewable energy alternatives. The national com-munication reports listed a set of planned proj-ects in the energy supply sectors. These are relat-ed primarily to more efficient production and awider adoption of renewable sources. Some ofthe projects proposed were to evaluate the marketpotential of solar, photovoltaic and wind tech-nologies, to decentralize electrification by photo-voltaic systems, and to adopt a combined cycle

ARAB ENVIRONMENT: CLIMATE CHANGE 15

expansion of thermal electrical plants which usesnatural gas. Morocco, for example, reported proj-ects for increasing the number of hydropowerunits, encouraging the use of solar water heaters,wind electricity generation, and desalination ofwater using wind energy. Algeria reported a proj-ect for reduction of gas flaring by 50 percent, andreduction of fugitive emissions from oil and gasinstallations (refineries, pipelines). Egypt’s list ofprojects contained the first 140 MW integratedsolar thermal/natural gas power plant.

Based on the submitted initial national commu-nications from 14 Arab countries, the mainmeasures reported are related to enhancement ofelectrical energy efficiency in lighting, cooling,cooking and air conditioning, and implementa-tion of demand-side management programmes.Some other measures were reported to improvefuel efficiency of vehicles and promotion of pub-lic transportation systems. These policies andmeasures are explained here in more detail.

The Transport Sector

In the transport sector, policies and measuresenvisioned by Arab countries are aimed at creatingsustainable transport systems. These include thedevelopment of road transportation master plans,modern efficient traffic management systems toreduce traffic idle time in cities, improvement oftransport infrastructure, imposition of tariffs ortaxes on cars; and application of varied road tolls,discouragement of the use of private vehicles anda concomitant improvement of the public trans-port systems, and improvement of vehicle mainte-nance or replacement of old vehicles.

Technological measures include introduction ofless carbon alternative fuels such as LPG or com-pressed natural gas (CNG) vehicles, introductionof vehicle emission standards, fuel economy stan-dards, and switching from diesel to electric trac-tion on railways. Further, the effect of recentdevelopment of the information and communi-cation technologies (ICT) in the Arab region onreducing demand on transport and thus reducingGHG emissions has not been estimated.

Increasing the use of public transport, a particu-larly promising option, has already been imple-mented or is under serious consideration in sev-eral of the region’s major cities. The construction

of the underground rail system in Cairo, forexample, has eased traffic congestion consider-ably in that city. Plans for light rail systems arealso being considered for Damascus, Amman,Alexandria, Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia andDubai. The expectation is that if public transportsystems improve, many people will opt to usepublic transport instead of private cars (ESCWA,2001). At present, policies to develop and pro-mote public transport systems in the GCC arestill in their infancy stage.

In Egypt, mitigating GHG emissions from thetransport sector involves policies aiming toremove old vehicles from the streets, promotingefficient public transport, expansion of theunderground Metro system, introducing alterna-tive fuels such as CNG, and hybrid vehicles. Arecent Global Environment Facility (GEF) sup-ported sustainable transport program has beeninitiated which aims at: integrating sustainabletransport planning principles into urban plan-ning, facilitating modal shift to less pollutingforms of public transportation, promotion ofnon-motorized transport facilities in middle sizecities, traffic management and traffic demandmanagement to discourage individual use of pri-vate cars. Mitigation options for the transportsector outlined in the first national communica-tion included the following:

• Improvement of vehicle maintenance and tun-ing up of vehicle engines;

• Use of compressed natural gas as a vehicle fuelin transport;

• Re-introduction of the electrified railways inintercity and intra-city transport;

• Intensifying the use of environmentally soundriver transport system;

• Extending metro lines to newly developedcities; and Encouraging private sector partici-pation in financing and managing the newmetro lines (Abdel Gelil, 2008a).

A major step in the process of upgrading Cairo’stransport system has been the construction of anunderground metro, the first of its kind inAfrica and the Middle East. The nearly 63 km-long underground metro network links the fivegovernorates comprising the CairoMetropolitan region: Cairo, Giza, Qalyoubia,Helwan and the 6th of October. The networkcomprises two lines: line (1) Helwan - El-Marg


and line (2) Shubra - El-Kheima - Mouneeb.Line (1), which was completed in 2000, has atotal length of 44 km, and it presently carries1.5 million passengers per day. This project alsoincluded the electrification of the existing dieseltrains in parts of the route. The second line’slength is 19 km, and it was completed in 2005.The number of passengers using this line now is1.2 million passengers per day. Future plansinclude building a third line of about 33 km anda design capacity of 2.1 million passengers perday from Cairo International Airport, east ofCairo, to Imbaba in the west. Construction ofthis line is expected to take 13 years to be com-pleted. Three additional lines are also envi-sioned for the year 2022 (Egyptian TunnelingSociety – ETS, 2004).

As per the UAE’s first national communication,the amount of travel in cars and light duty truckscontinues to grow due to increasing populationand economic development. The overall efficien-cy of the passenger transportation system can besignificantly improved through measures thatlimit the growth in vehicle miles travelledthrough land-use and infrastructure investments.

One such investment is a metro system that cansimultaneously relieve urban congestion andreduce GHG emissions. Currently, Dubai hasidentified the need for an urban rail transit sys-tem to supply additional transportation capacityto relieve growing traffic, and support the city’scontinuing development. The first metro line inDubai was inaugurated in September 2009. TheDubai Urban Rail Transit (Metro) will be thefirst such system on the Arabian Peninsula.

In Jordan, in order to improve the fuel efficiencyof vehicles, and to help take old inefficient cars offthe roads, the government encouraged taxi ownersto replace their old cars with modern ones by pro-viding tax and duties exemptions for new import-ed taxis. Additionally, the government is consider-ing the introduction of double-deck buses inGreater Amman and other municipalities toreduce fuel consumption, achieve greater efficien-cy, and reduce GHG emissions. Another mitiga-tion strategy in the transport sector in Jordan wasthe improvement of traffic management to easetraffic congestion through, for instance, buildingbridges and tunnels, and automating traffic lights.Moreover, the Jordanian government has intro-


duced tax exemptions on hybrid cars as an incen-tive to promote their use.

These measures have had considerable effects onreducing road congestion, minimizing idlingtime, and, thus, reducing transport energy inten-sity. Furthermore, the government recognizes theneed for a major upgrading of the road transportsystem. This was realized by establishing a RoadMaintenance Fund through public-private part-nerships and a system of road-user tolls.According to Jordan’s initial national communi-cation, “the rapid construction of the Shidiya railline is critical to the future of the railway sector.The government is considering private financingas part of a concession agreement for privateoperation and maintenance of rail services on thisline.” Other planned priority investment projectsin the transportation sector include restructuringthe public transport and development of a light-rail system. The government envisions that a sub-stantial part of this planned development will befinanced by domestic and foreign private sectors(Jordan, 1997).

In Yemen, the first national communicationreported that energy use in the transport sectorcould be reduced through a number of measuresincluding fuel efficiency improvement, trafficmanagement, improvement of freight transport,switching to less carbon fuels such as LPG, andpublic education (Yemen, 2001).

The transport mitigation strategies in Sudanidentified several priority areas for governmentpolicy: development of transportation infrastruc-ture (roads, telecommunications. etc.), encouragepublic transport and improve traffic flow, applyspeed limits standards and fuel economy stan-dards, and encourage importation of efficientvehicles (Sudan, 2003).

The Industrial Sector

The industrial sector is another major energyconsuming sector in most of the Arabeconomies. Most Arab countries, especiallythose which are highly endowed with hydrocar-bon resources (oil and gas) are mainly depend-ent on those resources to fuel their industries.Energy intensive industries such as oil refining,metal extraction, chemicals and petrochemicalshave been proliferating in the oil producing

countries. This has been a global trend since thefirst world energy crises in 1973. In 2006, theseindustries contributed 49.5% to the Arab GDP(LAS, 2007). Due to the central importance ofthese industries to the GDP, their low levels ofenergy efficiency and the huge capacity of fossilbased desalination plants in the GCC region,the energy and carbon intensities of the GCCcountries are ranked very high by internationalstandards. For instance, in 2005, the energyintensity of Bahrain (0.77 toe/ $1000) wasmore than double the world average (0.32 toe/$1000) and about seven times the Japaneseintensity (0.11 toe/ $1000).

GHG emissions from industry include thoseresulting from burning fossil fuels, indirect emis-sions resulting from the use of electricity, andemissions related to certain industrial processessuch as aluminium smelting, iron and steel,cement, and the food industry.

Several technologies have proved to be technical-ly and economically viable worldwide to improveindustrial energy efficiency. These include indus-trial process control, waste heat recovery,improvement of combustion efficiency, energymanagement systems, combined heat and power(CHP), high efficiency lighting, high efficiencymotors, and many others.

Several Arab countries have adopted successfulprogrammes for improving industrial energy effi-ciency including building national capacities onenergy audits, energy accounting, and energyefficient technologies.

Energy efficiency is an important strategy thathas been adopted and promoted throughout theEgyptian economy. Given the critical energy sit-uation in Egypt, the high level of energy con-sumption and the limited energy resources, it isimperative to conserve energy in the major ener-gy consuming sectors, including the industrialsector which is the second largest consumer ofelectricity (36% of the total) (EEAA, 1999).Industrial energy efficiency measures includedenergy audits which showed an average potentialsaving of about 25% in Egypt mostly in theEgyptian Industries. Measures implementedinclude combustion efficiency improvement,waste heat recovery, power factor improvementand use of efficient lighting systems.


In the UAE, carbon emissions associated withelectricity consumption in the industrial sectoraccounted for about 57% of all energy-relatedgreenhouse gas emissions in 1994. It is expectedthat industrial energy consumption could bereduced by 25 percent or more with good pay-back through a combination of energy-savingmeasures for industrial motors. These includeproper motors sizing to meet demand and usinghigh efficiency motors. Another key energy sav-ing strategy could be to install variable speeddrives (VSDs) on applications of variable loads,in addition to leaks reduction from compressedair systems and high pressure steam systems(UAE, 2008).

The energy bill in the Jordanian economyreached about 800 billion Jordanian dinars in2003 which accounts for nearly 13% of GDPand 45% of exports (NERC, 2008). This burdenmakes clear the urgent need to devise and imple-ment an energy efficiency strategy. The proposedstrategy contains many policies and measures toreduce energy consumption in the industrialactivities, efficient lighting systems, variablespeed drives, and efficient motors.

Lebanon is not an energy producing country, and

imported fossil fuel in Lebanon accounts for97% of the country’s energy bill and totalledaround $1.5 billion in 2004 (nearly 20% of theannual expenditures of the Lebanese governmentor about 7.5% of GDP). Energy consumption inLebanon was responsible for approximately 15.3million tons of carbon dioxide emissions in2002. The Lebanese transport sector is the majorenergy consumer which made up about 42 % oftotal energy consumption in 1999 (WRI, 1999).

In 2002, Lebanon with support from UNDP/GEFstarted a project to reduce GHG emissions byimproving demand side energy efficiency throughthe creation of a multi-purpose Lebanese Centrefor Energy Conservation (LCECP). The Centrewill simultaneously undertake activities to removebarriers to improve energy efficiency and provideenergy efficiency services to the public and privatesectors. There will be a broad range of supportingactivities including technical support, financialincentives, information dissemination, awarenessprograms, policy analysis and program design.Achievements of the LCECP as of now includeperforming energy audits, undertaking trainingand public education activities, and fund raisingfor energy efficiency and renewable energy projects(LCECP, 2008).


Measures to reduce GHG emissions and improveenergy efficiency reported through the firstnational communication include efficientmotors, combustion efficiency improvements ofboilers and furnaces, and improve efficiency ofthe cement industry. As the cement industry isthe single largest source of Lebanese CO2 emis-sions and a major energy user, mitigation meas-ures reported included process modification andcombustion efficiency improvements (Lebanon,1999).

The Building Sector

Energy use in buildings accounts for nearly 40%of global energy consumption and 36% of totalenergy-related CO2 emissions. Half of this ener-

gy consumption occurs in industrialized coun-tries, the remainder is consumed by the rest ofthe world (Price et al., 2005). In general, twomajor strategies have been used to improve ener-gy efficiency in the building sector and thusreduce its GHG emissions. The first strategy is toimprove building envelope energy performance.This is widely known as green building, sustain-able building or energy efficient building con-cepts. The second strategy is to improve efficien-cy of energy consuming equipment used insidethe buildings such as home appliances, lightingsystems, air conditioning systems, computers andother office equipments and the like.

In response to recent environmental, economic,market and regulatory drivers, green buildingconcepts and practices have become widely pro-moted worldwide. The U.S. Green BuildingCouncil has developed a Green Building RatingSystem called the Leadership in Energy andEnvironmental Design (LEED). Today, there aremore than 50,000 LEED-accredited profession-als in the US. Furthermore, the World GreenBuilding Council (GBC) is a union of nationalcouncils. The current member nations of theWorld GBC represent over 50 percent of globalconstruction activity, and touch more than15,000 companies and organizations worldwide(USGBC, 2008).

The UAE is pioneering to apply the LEED certi-fication system in new buildings, and in 2005established the Emirates Green BuildingCouncil, meant to become a model for the Arabregion to follow (Emirates GBC, 2008). Bahrainis also working towards achieving the same goal.Several other Arab countries have similarly beendeveloping energy building codes.

Many Arab countries have already establisheddifferent kinds of building codes. As part of thenational energy efficiency strategy of Jordan,thermal insulation in residential and commercialbuilding in certain zoning areas should beenforced. In addition, the preparation of an“Energy Efficiency Code” is a part of such a strat-egy (Shahin, 2005).

After many efforts to promote green architectureby several Egyptian institutions, Egypt developedresidential building energy efficiency codes in2003, and the new codes will be initially imple-


MASDAR CITYA pioneering initiative in the UAE is the construction of theworld’s first zero-carbon, zero-waste and car-free-city in AbuDhabi, named MASDAR city. The city is planned to host40,000 residents and receive another 50,000 daily com-muters. It is envisioned to be a free zone clean-tech clusterhome to around 1,500 visionary companies and researchcentres. The MASDAR Institute of Science and Technology isthe first comer to the city and will be home to 100 studentsand faculty by fall 2009. Cars will be banned within the city;travel will be accomplished via public mass transit and per-sonal rapid transit systems, with road and railways connectingcommuters to other locations outside the city. The city will bewalled, to keep out the hot desert wind. The lack of cars willallow for narrow, shaded streets that will also improve air cir-culation and reduce demand for air conditioning. The city willbe oriented northeast to minimize the amount of direct sun-light on buildings’ sides and windows. Solar panels and solarcollectors on roofs and elsewhere will generate enough elec-tricity to meet most of the city’s electricity needs. Water will beprovided through a solar-powered desalination plant.Landscaping within the city and crops grown outside the citywill be irrigated with grey water and treated waste water pro-duced by the city. It is planned that MASDAR City will be com-pleted and be fully functional by 2012 (The Economist,2008). Recently, MASDAR City was elected to host the newlyestablished International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA);this is a milestone achievement for Abu Dhabi and marks thefirst time that an Arab city plays host to the headquarters of aninternational organization (MASDAR, 2009)

Sources: The Economist (2008). MASDAR Plan. At http://www.economist.com/science/tq/displaystory.cfm?story_id=12673433MASDAR (2009), http://www.irenauae.com/en/home/index.aspx

mented on a voluntary basis. If enforced, it wasestimated that these codes would save about 20%of building energy consumption. According toJoe Huang (2003), there is little indication thatprevious efforts have succeeded in changing over-all design practices in Egypt towards improvedenergy efficiency. Furthermore, the extent of thecodes’ enforcement and impacts of their imple-mentation on building energy efficiency have notbeen assessed yet.

In Lebanon, a thermal energy standard for build-ing is under development with the support of theADEME of France. In addition, the Lebaneseconstruction law provides economic incentivesfor voluntary thermal insulation of building.However, due to a weak legislative and institu-tional framework, subsidies of energy prices, andthe absence of a national strategy, many energyefficiency projects in Lebanon, especially fundedby donors from the EU, have failed to achievetangible results (Mourtada, 2008).

In Syria, a code of practice of thermal insulationfor buildings is being developed. The aim is toprovide information to consumers regarding theadvantages of building insulation in order toaffect insulation purchase decisions. These guide-lines would provide best practices of recom-mended insulation levels for new and existingbuildings (Zein, 2005).

In Kuwait, where air-conditioning accounts for50% of building energy demand, a code of prac-tice for energy conservation was developed to setlimits for the electrical consumption of air-condi-tioning systems for buildings. The code stipulatesenergy conservation measures and limits for dif-ferent types of buildings.

Achieving sustainable building designs in theArab countries is at its early stages of develop-ment, and only a very limited amount of scholar-ly review to document such efforts has beenundertaken. For the last few decades, urbaniza-tion in the Arab region, especially in the GCC,has been characterized by forms of importedwestern architecture which are far from being inharmony with the Arab social, geographical andclimatic conditions. High rise buildings withlarge areas of glass façade, and huge demand forelectricity for air conditioning can be seen in allnew urban centres such as Dubai, Abu Dhabi,

Doha, and the others. These unsustainabledesigns of residential and commercial buildings,besides being big consumers of energy and water,are massive contributors to GHG emissions.

The second GHG mitigation strategy in thebuilding sector mostly reported in the nationalcommunication reports includes efficient light-ing systems, certification and labelling of homeappliances, and dissemination of improved stovesfor cooking in rural areas. Lebanon, Tunisia,Algeria, Syria, and Egypt have projects for certi-fication of home appliances at different stages ofdevelopment.

The Egyptian government has successfully devel-oped energy efficiency standards and energylabels for the three most market penetrated appli-ances in Egypt, namely room air conditioners,


washing machines and refrigerators. Energy effi-ciency specifications for these selected applianceswere developed and approved by the EgyptianOrganization for Standardization and QualityControl (EOS). A ministerial decree of theMinister of Industry was issued in 2003 concern-ing refrigerators, washing machines, freezers androom air-conditioning. It is mandatory for localmanufacturers and importers of such equipmentsto meet these specifications, as well as to applythe Energy Efficiency Label (CLASP, 2008).

Tunisia has recently implemented a standardsand labelling programme for household appli-ances and other energy-driven equipment. Thisprogramme, which was supported by the GEFand executed by l’Agence Nationale pour laMaitrise de l’Energie (ANME), led to theissuance of energy labelling and minimum ener-gy efficiency standards for refrigerators in 2004.As a result, it is forecasted that by 2030 this pro-gramme will have saved 3.4 Mt of CO2 emissions(LIHIDHEB, 2007).

The development of energy efficiency standardsfor home appliances is part of the NationalEnergy Efficiency Program of the Ministry ofEnergy and Mines in Algeria. The energy effi-ciency law no.99-09 of 1999 and its executiveregulations outlines the general rules concerningthe energy efficiency of home appliances operat-ing on electricity, gas and petroleum products.The law also stipulates that the energy perform-ance requirements of those appliances have to beset by the government (CLASP, 2008).

After the discovery of oil in Sudan, it has beenpromoting a policy of switching from biomass toliquefied petroleum gas (LPG) for cooking.Sudan highlighted the impacts on Sudanese bio-mass stocks that sequester carbon of shifting fromburning biomass to LPG for cooking in rural andurban households. The Khartoum Refinery has acapability of producing 500 tons/day of LPG.Recently, the government has implemented anumber of policies to encourage the increased useof LPG in the household sector: the price washalved and the fees and customs on LPG stoveswere decreased substantially.

Lighting consumes 19% of the global electricityproduction, and is associated with an annual 1.9billion tons of CO2 emissions. Globally more

than 70% of lamps sold are incandescent, whilemuch more efficient (but also more expensive)compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) account forjust over 6% (GEF, 2008). According to theWorldwatch Institute (WWI), the total numberof CFLs in use globally nearly doubled between2001 and 2003 alone, growing from an estimated1.8 billion to 3.5 billion units (WWI, 2008).Energy saving and the associated GHG reduc-tions are correlated to the amount of fuel saveddue to the reduction in electrical energy demandresulting from using low wattage lamps. The eco-nomics of using such efficient lamps dependmainly on the structure of electricity generationin every country, fuel used, and cost of fuels. Oneof the major barriers to the use of these highlyefficient lamps in most Arab countries, as hasbeen the case worldwide, is their high initial cost.One way to overcome that is the exemptions ofthese lamps from customs duties, especiallyimportant given that these types of lamps arerarely manufactured locally in the Arab coun-tries. Another way is to develop innovativefinancing schemes through which end users willbe paying the initial cost from the cost of electric-ity savings.

Though CFLs offer enormous economic andenvironmental benefits, only few Arab countrieshave strategies or national plans to disseminatethem. In most cases, these efficient lamps arebeing distributed at the commercial level throughretailers, or agencies of foreign manufacturerswithout any local government support.According to China Association of LightingIndustry, the volume of CFLs imports by theUAE in 2006 amounted to 65.9 million lamps(China Association of Lighting Industry, 2008).

Some projects funded by multilateral or bilateraldonors have been promoting CFL lamps in someArab countries; examples include Lebanon andEgypt. In 2008, the United Nations DevelopmentProgramme (UNDP), in cooperation with theMinistry of Energy & Water and the LebaneseCentre for Energy Conservation (LCEC),launched a National Campaign for CFLs. Thiscampaign aims to raise public awareness about thebenefits of CFLs. LCEC has implemented variouspilot projects replacing conventional light bulbswith CFLs in different Lebanese villages. As aresult, local savings of around 13% on the totalelectricity bill were achieved.


Lighting accounts for nearly 23% of the totalelectricity consumption in Egypt, half of which isconsumed in the residential and commercial sec-tors. The GEF/UNDP supported “EnergyEfficiency Improvement & Greenhouse GasReduction Project” has undertaken some initia-tives to promote CFLs. These include a study toreduce the custom duties on CFLs from 30% to5% in order to help cut their initial cost, imple-ment a lease program of CFLs by the state-ownedelectricity distribution companies, and encouragelocal manufacturing of CFLs. There is no avail-able information on government’s incentivesused to encourage local manufacturers; however,six local manufacturing plants were established.These activities, together with public educationand marketing campaigns have led to increase themarket size of CFL in Egypt to 4.4 million in2007. It was estimated that the accumulatedCO2 reduction due to those activities up till2007 was nearly 2.3 million tons (GEF/UNDP,2008).

In Tunisia, several projects to disseminate about10 million CFLs during the period 2007-2011are planned under the Clean DevelopmentMechanism (CDM) of the Kyoto Protocol.These projects are still under development.According to the ANME, nearly one million tonsof CO2 reduction is projected up to 2012(ANME, 2008).

Fuel switching

Worldwide, natural gas contributed about 17%of the total fuels for electricity generation in2007. It is projected that natural gas will play animportant role in the transition to low-carbonenergy in the near future. This is because it pro-duces less carbon dioxide per unit of energy thanoil and coal do. Statistics show that the world’sconsumption of natural gas has been expandingduring the last decade. The same trend was seenin the Arab region. Switching to natural gas hasbeen a crucial response to many factors includingmitigation of air pollution and GHG emissions.The critical role natural gas is playing and isexpected to play in the global energy market wasemphasized with the recent establishment of the“Gas Exporting Countries Forum (GECF)” in2008, which is hosted in Doha, Qatar. LeadingArab gas producers, namely Algeria, Egypt, UAE,Qatar, and Libya, have joined the forum.

Natural gas represents the second largest pri-mary energy resource used in the Arab countriesat nearly 23% of the final energy consumptionin 2006. Twelve Arab countries are currentlyusing natural gas, in some form, in power gen-eration, industry, the residential and commer-cial sectors, and the transport sector. Arab gasreserves represent nearly 30% of global reserves.Total gas production in the Arab countriesaccounts for about 12.5% of the global gas pro-duction (LAS, 2007). Two regional gas projectsare underway aiming to increase natural gas uti-lization in the Arab region. The first project,named the Arab gas pipeline, aims to connectthe Egyptian gas network to Jordan, Syria, andthen to Turkey with a total length of 1200 km.The second regional project named “Dolphin”will transport Qatari gas to the UAE with a totallength of 370 km. Some other regional gas proj-ects are planned such as a project betweenNorth African Arab countries, and betweenthem and Europe.

In power generation, the switch from petroleumproducts to natural gas was the most commonlyreported activity. For example, the use of naturalgas was increased considerably in a number ofcountries. In Tunisia, most of the thermally gen-erated energy supply comes from natural gas.This has avoided 900,000 t CO2 emissions perannum, relative to a scenario in which oil-basedproducts were used instead. Natural gas is alsoplaying a key role in Egypt’s energy policy. Givenits economic and environmental advantages, nat-ural gas will improve the overall energy efficiencyand environmental quality of Egypt. Switchingfrom oil to gas was identified as a priority meas-ure in the National Action Plan on ClimateChange that was prepared by the EgyptianEnvironmental Affairs Agency in 1999. Theenergy policy of Egypt has been developed topromote the substitution of natural gas in varioussectors. Strategies include: (i) developing gasinfrastructure to expand gas markets and developdomestic gas demand – the market share of nat-ural gas in the total hydrocarbon consumptionhas increased to about 45%; (ii) the substitutionof heavy fuel oil with natural gas in electricitygeneration has made considerable reductions inair pollution; (iii) promotion of CompressedNatural Gas (CNG) as a transport fuel is alsounderway; and (iv) encouraging private sectorinvestments in the gas industry. A number of pri-


vate firms have been formed to participate in theconstruction of gas pipelines, building CNGfuelling stations and converting vehicles to useCNG.

The Egyptian program to use CNG as a trans-portation fuel has proved to be successful; by2008, there were 6 operating CNG companies,116 CNG fuelling stations, and about 100,000CNG vehicles were in use (EGAS, 2008).

A primary key to the CNG industry success inEgypt is a package of incentives offered by thegovernment, including 5-year tax holidays forCNG companies, low-cost conversion chargesfor car owners, and the attractive price differen-tial between CNG and gasoline (Abdel Gelil,2008).

Additionally, more than 90% of the thermal elec-tricity generated in Egypt is based on natural gas.Furthermore, a plan is being implemented toexpand the use of natural gas in the residentialsector, and about 2 million homes have alreadybeen connected.

In Bahrain, all of the power plants are currentlyrunning on natural gas. In Morocco, a 385 MWcombined cycle power plant was commissioned in2004. A similar one with a capacity of 360 MWwas started in Algeria in 2005. Jordan has smallreserves of natural gas used to fuel a small powerplant to meet only about 4% of the country’sneeds. Within the Arab Gas Pipeline project,Egypt will supply gas to power plants and largeindustrial users in Jordan for 18 years. In the UAE,an initiative to develop an action plan to introducenatural gas as a transport fuel is planned.According to the Environment Agency of AbuDhabi (EAD), 20 percent of government-ownedvehicles and taxis in the emirate will be convertedto run on CNG by 2012 (AFED, 2008).

Renewable Energy

The Arab countries have a great potential forrenewable energy, including solar and wind, aswell as hydro and geothermal in specific loca-tions, which are still underutilized. The share ofrenewable energy in the total installed generationcapacity of the Arab countries remains relativelylow, standing at around 7% in 2007, mostlyfrom hydropower in Egypt, Syria, Iraq, Lebanon,

Sudan, Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, andMauritania. Solar and wind generation of elec-tricity amounts to 257 MW and remains limitedto Tunisia, Egypt, Jordan, Morocco, andPalestine (OAPEC, 2008).

Egypt ranked first in hydropower and wind ener-gy generation in the Arab countries with a totalinstalled capacity of 2,842 MW and 305 MWrespectively in 2007/2008 (EEHC, 2008). Windpower is planned to be increased to 965 MW by2012. In 2007, the Egyptian Supreme EnergyCouncil adopted an ambitious plan aiming toincrease the contribution of renewable to thetotal electricity generated to reach 20% by 2020;12% of this target will be met by wind.

Assessments of wind resources indicate that somelocations in the Arab countries have wind condi-tions that are more than adequate for electricitygeneration. Small and conventional applicationsof wind energy exist in Jordan and Tunisia. OnlyEgypt and Morocco have moved to commercialscale wind energy. In Morocco, installed windcapacity reached 54 MW in 2005 representingnearly 1% of the total installed capacity. Another500 MW of wind farms are currently under con-struction.

Due to their geographic location, the Arab coun-tries are blessed with an abundance of solar ener-gy potential. Solar energy generation using pho-tovoltaic (PV) technology is used in severalstand-alone applications especially for waterpumping, telecommunications and lighting forremote sites. The largest PV program exists inMorocco, where 160,000 solar home systems inabout 8% of rural households are installed with atotal capacity of 16 MW. Photovoltaic pumpingapplications are relatively developed in Tunisiawith a total existing peak capacity of 255 MW(Abdel Gelil, 2008b).

Solar water heaters are achieving different degreesof market penetration, and are currently mostsuccessful in the residential and commercial sec-tors of Palestine, Jordan, Egypt, Morocco, andLebanon. Table 2 shows that Palestine has thelargest area of solar water heaters in the region.This is due to the current security situation andthe unreliable electricity supply from Israel to theOccupied Palestinian Territories. It should benoted from the same table that solar water heaters



are mostly used in Arab countries with relativelyfew or no hydrocarbon resources.

Several Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) projectswere announced but not completed in NorthAfrican countries, namely Egypt, Morocco andAlgeria. With escalating concerns of climatechange, cost reductions and efficiency improve-ments of this technology, and the introduction ofindependent power producers (IPPs), CSP willplay an important role in the electricity genera-tion mix in those countries in the near future.

A recent plan announced in Algeria in 2007included the building of four gas-CSP plantswith total capacity of 1700 MW of which 250MW will be solar. The four power plants will begradually commissioned through 2015.

Egypt submitted an official request to the GEF tosupport financing the first solar thermal powerplant. Work is underway to implement the firstEgyptian hybrid solar thermal power plant of140 MW capacity of which 20 MW will be solar,while the rest will be gas combined cycle. Theplant is planned to be operational in 2010.

A similar project is under construction inMorocco to build a similar hybrid gas combinedcycle 472 MW solar thermal power plant with asolar component capacity of 30 MW. The proj-ect was initiated in 1994 following a feasibilitystudy of solar thermal power generation. AinBeni Mathar in Eastern Morocco was finallyselected to site the power plant.

Jerusalem District Electricity Company(JDECO) has signed an agreement with anAmerican Company (Nanovo) to establish aconcentrated solar power plant in Jericho,Palestine. The first phase of the project willhave a 3 MW capacity and will cost up to $17million, financed by the American company.The next phase will expand the plant to a 100MW capacity with a total cost of up to $300million (PERC, 2009).

In 2002, Jordan announced plans to build a 130MW solar hybrid power plant. The projectaimed at the development of 100-150 MW solarhybrid power plant assisted with fuel oil or natu-ral gas at Quwairah south of Jordan on a BuildOwn Operate (BOO) basis.

The UAE has chosen a different path to promoteCSP, focusing on promoting R&D through theMasdar Initiative. The UAE has 100 MW ofCSP open for tenders planned to be expanded to500 MW.

Measures to reduce GHG from Non-energy sectors

Some other non-energy sectors and economicactivities are contributing to the global anthro-pogenic emissions of GHGs. Examples are agri-culture activities and solid waste managementpractices.

The Agriculture Sector

Although CO2 emissions from fossil fuels are themajor cause of global climate change, about one-third of the total human-induced warming effectcomes from agriculture and land-use change. Thisis mainly because agricultural activities are themajor source of methane and nitrous oxides whichboth have much higher global warming potential(GWP) than CO2. Agricultural lands occupy 37%of the Earth’s land surface and account for 52%and 84% of global methane and nitrous oxideemissions, respectively (Smith, 2007). On theother hand, the agricultural sector can be part ofthe mitigation strategies by reducing its own emis-sions, offsetting emissions from other sectors byremoving CO2 from the atmosphere (via photo-synthesis) and storing the carbon in soils. Theseprocesses are major parts of the global carbon andnitrogen cycles. Through the adoption of agricul-tural best management practices, emissions ofnitrous oxide from agricultural soils, methanefrom livestock production and manure, and CO2from on-farm energy use can be reduced.

MARKET SIZE OF SOLAR WATER HEATERS INSELECTED ARAB COUNTRIES

TABLE 2

Country Current market size (m2)Morocco (annual) 130,000Algeria - Tunisia 57,000Egypt 500,000 Palestine 1,630,000 Jordan 825,000 Lebanon 177,993 Syria 200,000 (Source: SOLATERM Project Partners)


Measures reported in the national communica-tions of some Arab countries under agricultureincluded: introduction of new varieties of riceand management of paddies to reduce CH4emissions, rational use of fertilizers to reduceN2O emissions, increase of soil water absorption,and reduction of burning agricultural residues.Measures in the livestock-related operationsincluded changing of cattle fodders to reduceCH4 emissions from enteric fermentation,manure management and management of live-stock population.

The initial national communication of Egyptis nearly the only available report that describesin detail the different options available toEgypt to reduce CH4 emissions from rice pad-dies. These options include: rice cultivation ofshort duration varieties, water management,fertilizer management, and control of soil tem-perature. The same report recommends someactions to reduce CH4 emissions from live-stock by altering fermentation patterns, i.e.altering the composition of fodders. Some ofthese options are already being implemented inEgypt such as cultivation of short durationvarieties, water and fertilizer management withthe aims of water management and reductionof use of agrochemicals.

Additionally, only Mauritania reported projectsconcerning improved water and fertilizer man-agement, and improved efficiency of use of nitro-gen fertilizers.

Waste Management

Waste management practices produce green-house gas emissions in a number of ways. First,the anaerobic decomposition of waste in landfillsproduces methane. Second, open burning orincineration of waste produces combustion gasesincluding carbon dioxide. In addition, combus-tion of fuels used in transportation of waste todisposal sites is another source of GHG emis-sions. Sound waste management practices such aswaste prevention, minimization and recycling,better reduce GHG emissions from the waste sec-tor. These include reduction of methane emis-sions from landfills though diverting organicwastes from landfills to composting or other bio-logical treatment facilities, and reducing emis-sions from incinerators.

Generation of solid waste in the Arab region hasbeen growing for the past few decades. This isattributed to population growth, urbanization,economic growth and rising standards of livingin many countries. However, to different degrees,most of the Arab countries still lack integratedsystems for solid waste management. Per capitageneration of solid waste is normally correlatedwith income, and it reaches high levels in higherincome countries of the GCC. Organic waste stillrepresents more than 50% of the composition ofsolid waste in many Arab countries. This is alarge potential source of methane emissionswhich has been underestimated.

Open dumping is the most common method ofwaste disposal throughout the Arab region.Municipalities usually dump solid wastes in low-lying land, or abandoned quarries rather than atdesignated dump sites, usually named landfills.In addition to being poorly managed, these sitesgenerally lack most of the engineering and sani-tary measures for leachate collection and treat-ment, and methane capture. In many instancesspontaneous fires break out on these sites causingsevere air quality problems. Two demonstrationprojects for capture of landfill gases in Ammanand Kuwait were implemented though no docu-mentations of the results are available.

Incineration and waste-to-energy technologiesare capital intensive and only used in some casesof treating hazardous wastes such as in Bahrainand Egypt, both without energy recovery.Biological systems are either aerobic or anaerobic,but aerobic processes are most common in theArab cities to produce compost. There are manycomposting facilities in Egypt, Syria, Lebanon,Tunisia, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, as well as in otherArab countries.

In the Arab national communication reports,measures reported to mitigate GHG emissions inthis sector represented a wish list of differentsound solid and liquid waste management prac-tices. These included diversion of organic materi-als from landfills to produce compost, recovery ofmethane from landfills to generate electricity,and strengthening the legislative and institution-al framework for better management of solidwaste. In addition, measures frequently reportedincluded education, training and public aware-ness on waste issues. Some of these activities are


underway, but mostly they are in the early stagesof development in many countries.

III. MEASURE OF CARBON SEQUESTRA-TION AND STORAGE

Mitigation of GHG means implementing poli-cies and measures to reduce anthropogenic GHGemissions from sources such as power plants,industrial facilities and the transport sector, aswell as to enhance natural GHG sinks such asforests, land use change and carbon capture andstorage (CCS). This section discusses enhance-ments of carbon sinks through afforestations andCO2 capture & storage.

Land use change: Afforestation

There is a widespread recognition of the poten-tial of forests and land-use changes for offsettingemissions of GHGs. Measures proposed innational communications included promotingprogrammes of conservation, regeneration, refor-estation, and afforestation.

In Sudan, two main groups of mitigation optionswere considered for increasing carbon sequestra-tion and storage. The first group representsafforestation and rehabilitation options. Theseoptions refer to the afforestation and rehabilita-tion of wastelands, together with afforestation of10% of the rain fed land and 5% of the irrigatedagricultural land. The second group representsmanagement options, which involve a naturalresource management approach based on theconservation and rehabilitation of degradedforests and rangelands. Reforestation and bio-mass conservation projects are also key elementsin Djibouti’s proposed programme of action.Tunisia reported on a concerted approach withneighbouring countries, and with the interna-tional community for the implementation of aprogram aimed at combating desertification.Similar projects were also reported inMauritania, Djibouti, and Morocco.

A promising CDM afforestation project is cur-rently being proposed by the EgyptianEnvironmental Affairs Agency. The GreaterCairo Ring Road Afforestation project will helpimprove the air quality of Cairo. The forest thatwill be planted will be irrigated by treated agri-

cultural drainage water and will absorb about100,000 tons of CO2eq annually, helping to off-set the carbon emissions from vehicles, industryand power plants. The project is currently underdevelopment. In addition, Japan Bank forInternational Cooperation (JBIC) conducted apreliminary study on the Egyptian BiofuelIndustry Development in June, 2007. Jatrophatest cultivation was started in 2003 as a part ofEgypt’s afforestation program. The EgyptianJatropha yield turned out to be the highest pro-duction level compared to the Asian and Africannon-irrigated cultivation. Although the primarypurposes of the Egyptian Jatropha model areanti-desertification and beneficial use of treatedwastewater, the high production results caughtthe attention of private biofuel producers. Underthat study, JBIC proposed an integrated strategicplan to realize the new biofuel industry with a“Public Private Partnership” (JDI, 2007).

Another remarkable afforestation experience is inthe UAE. According to the Environmental Agency- Abu Dhabi, “Over the last few decades, over 120million trees have been planted, as well as 25 mil-lion date palms. Over 92,000 hectares have beenplanted with forest trees. These are now helping toreverse the process of desertification and to stabi-lize the sand dunes that once moved inexorablyacross the land. They also provide attractive newhabitats for wildlife, with many species of animalsand birds increasing rapidly in numbers as theycolonise the new areas of vegetation”(Environmental Agency Abu Dhabi, 2006).

Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS)

CO2 capture & storage (CCS) is a process com-prised of three steps. The first is CO2 capturefrom CO2 point sources such as power plants,industrial facilities, and natural gas wells with highCO2 content emissions. The second step is trans-portation via pipelines to the storage site; and thethird step is geological storage in deep geologicalformations including saline formations, depletedoil/gas fields, coal seams, and enhanced oil or gasrecovery sites. In the combustion processes, CO2can be captured either in pre-combustion modeby treatment of fossil fuels or in post-combustionmode by treatment of the flue gases. Due toeconomies of scale, large point sources of CO2emissions have the highest potential of CO2 cap-ture. These include large industries such as oil and


gas, cement and steel and electric power plants.CO2 has been injected and stored in oilfields as ameans to enhance oil recovery since the late1970s. Currently, the estimated global geologicalstorage potential in depleted oil/gas fields equals900 Gt of CO2 (IEA, 2006). The IPCC SpecialReport on Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storagerecently stated that: “CCS has the potential toreduce overall mitigation costs and increase flexi-bility in achieving greenhouse gas emission reduc-tions.” (IPCC, 2005).

The first major location where CO2 was stored ingeological formations as a climate change mitiga-tion option was under the North Sea. In 1996,StatOil, an oil company, started removing CO2from the natural gas and injecting it into a mas-sive saline aquifer located 800–1000 metersunder the North Sea (IEA, 2006).

Algeria hosts one of the world’s three largestdemonstration sites of CCS which is the BP’s InSalah project, where CO2 is captured and storedin a gas field. This demonstration project offers

an opportunity to collect baseline and monitor-ing data that is not associated with enhanced oilrecovery. The project is aimed to ensure thatsecure geological storage of CO2 can be cost-effectively verified, to demonstrate to stakehold-ers that industrial-scale geological storage of CO2is a viable GHG mitigation option, and to setprecedents for the regulation and verification ofthe geological storage of CO2, allowing eligibili-ty for GHG credits in the international carbonmarket. It is worth mentioning here that CCSprojects are not yet eligible under the currentmodalities of the Clean DevelopmentMechanism (CDM) of the Kyoto Protocol.

The Algerian project involves separating CO2from natural gas at the In Salah gas facility. TheCO2 is being re-injected into a sandstone reservoirfor permanent storage. In this Gas project, thenatural gas has a high level of CO2 which is cap-tured. The CO2 free gas is processed for distribu-tion as sales gas. About 1 million tons per year ofCO2 is compressed before it enters the CO2pipelines. These pipelines transport the CO2 to


reservoirs which are up to 20 km away. Finally theCO2 is injected into the reservoirs at depths of 1.8to 2 km below the surface (KBR, 2006).

According to the IEA, this project has been stor-ing about 1.2 million ton of CO2 annually since2004 with a cost of $6/ ton CO2 (IEA, 2006).

It is worth noting that the Arab region, especial-ly in the GCC and other hydrocarbon producingcountries, has a great potential of CCS technolo-gy by using depleted oil and gas wells for carbonstorage.

IV. CONCLUSIONS

This review indicates that most of the Arab coun-tries are implementing wide varieties of climatefriendly policies and measures. These includepolicies and measures both to reduce anthro-pogenic GHG emissions as well as those toenhance carbon sinks. Though most of thesepolicies and measures are being adopted inresponse to some economic, social, or environ-mental considerations, they would result in a sig-nificant reduction of GHG emissions. Some ofthese activities are well recognized worldwidesuch as commercializing wind energy in Egypt,wide use of solar heating in Palestine, Tunisiaand Morocco, use of CNG as a transport fuel inEgypt, the first CSP projects in Egypt, Morocco,and Algeria, the first green building council inDubai, the massive forestation program in theUAE, the first zero-carbon city in Abu Dhabi,and the pioneering CCS project in Algeria. Asstated earlier, these initiatives are fragmented asthere is little evidence that they have been imple-mented within an integrated policy framework.

In meeting their obligations to the UNFCCC,14 Arab countries have submitted their initialnational communications. None has completedthe second one. The initial national communi-cation of Saudi Arabia, the world’s largest oilexporter, for unknown reasons, did not containmention of any GHG mitigation efforts. In gen-eral, more efforts are needed to enhance thereporting quality of the national communica-tion reports as they are important vehicles toshowcase the Arab region’s contributions to theinternational efforts to address the climatechange challenge.

V. RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the above analysis, Arab countries needto enhance the flow and availability of informa-tion on their efforts addressing climate change.This would result in improving policy develop-ment and enhance public awareness. Manypotential areas of Arab-Arab cooperation couldbe identified. These include development of theunder utilized renewable energy resources, use ofCNG as a transport fuel to improve urban airquality while reducing GHG emissions, and tap-ping on the huge potential of carbon sequestra-tion and storage in the oil producing countriesespecially in the GCC. It is recommended thatArab countries commit themselves to adoptnational energy efficiency and renewable energytargets. Most of the Arab countries, especially inthe GCC, need to adopt policies of sustainabletransport. These might include building modernpublic transport systems to improve energy effi-ciency and abate vehicles emissions. The conceptof “green building” should also be promoted andfuture urban expansions should achieve the high-est levels of resources efficiency.


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