Amhara Livelihood Zone Reports Goncha Siso Enese Woreda East Gojam Administrative Zone Central Highland Barley & Potato (CBP) Livelihood Zone Degradation and high soil acidity undermine agricultural production in this dega zone. Poor market access and the significant contribution of food purchases to household consumption increases household vulnerability to food market shocks. The better-off are the only wealth group who get more than half their income from their own production. Agricultural labor is an important source of income for the very poor, poor and middle households. South East Woina Dega Teff (SWT) Livelihood Zone This is a surplus producing area. Own crop production covers the highest proportion of the annual food requirement for all wealth groups. In a typical year, middle and better-off wealth groups rely heavily upon livestock and crop sales as a means of generating cash income. whilst the poor and very poor rely more on labor. Road access is good. Abay Beshilo Basin (ABB) Livelihood Zone This zone suffers from chronic food insecurity due to erratic rains, small landholdings, degraded farmlands, infertile soil, pest infestation, livestock disease and malaria. Trade across the river valleys is minimal in the dry season and impossible in the rainy season. The middle and better-off barely produce more than their annual food needs. The poor /very poor are dependent on local labor, PSNP and firewood sales to meet their food needs. Contents Map & livelihood zone description Population by livelihood zone Key parameters for monitoring Livelihood zone profiles Page 1
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Amhara Livelihood Zone Reports
Goncha Siso Enese Woreda East Gojam Administrative Zone
Central Highland Barley & Potato (CBP) Livelihood
Zone Degradation and high soil acidity undermine agricultural production in this dega zone. Poor market access and the significant contribution of food purchases to household consumption increases household vulnerability to food market shocks. The better-off are the only wealth group who get more than half their income from their own production. Agricultural labor is an important source of income for the very poor, poor and middle households.
South East Woina Dega Teff (SWT) Livelihood
Zone This is a surplus producing area. Own crop production covers the highest proportion of the annual food requirement for all wealth groups. In a typical year, middle and better-off wealth groups rely heavily upon livestock and crop sales as a means of generating cash income. whilst the poor and very poor rely more on labor. Road access is good.
Abay Beshilo Basin (ABB) Livelihood Zone
This zone suffers from chronic food insecurity due to erratic rains, small landholdings, degraded farmlands, infertile soil, pest infestation, livestock disease and malaria. Trade across the river valleys is minimal in the dry season and impossible in the rainy season. The middle and better-off barely produce more than their annual food needs. The poor /very poor are dependent on local labor, PSNP and firewood sales to meet their food needs.
Abay Beshilo Basin Livelihood Zone (ABB) October 2007 1
Zone Description
The Abay Beshilo Livelihood Zone is a food insecure area with a very long history of relief assistance. The woredas with kebeles within the LZ are located in various administrative zones of the Amhara region: East Gojam (Aneded, Awabel, Baso Liben, Dejen, Enarj Enawga, Enbise Sar Midr, Enemay, Goncha Siso Enese, Guzamn, Hulet Ej Enese, Shebel Bereta), West Gojam, (Yilmana Densa); South Gonder (Dera, E & W Esite, Simada, Tach Gayint); and South Wollo (Debrasina, Mehal Sayint, Tenta, Wegde). The Abay Beshilo Basin Livelihood Zone is a narrow, elongated area comprising the lowland (kola) parts of the woredas listed above. The LZ runs beside the River Abay, and beside its tributary the Beshilo River and is a long distance from major roads and towns. The population is relatively scattered. The vegetation is bush and shrubs. Natural resources in this zone include gypsum and gum arabic acacias. It is a mixed production system with both crops and livestock. The dominant crops include sorghum, teff, maize and haricot beans. Crop production is entirely rain fed, except in small number of localities where small-scale water harvesting practices have been recently introduced by the Office of Agriculture and Rural Development. There is only one rainy season – kremt - and it is important for the cultivation of both long and short cycle crops. The area is characterized by high temperatures, erratic rainfall and sandy soils. These factors contribute to the high rate of evapo-transpiration and poor water holding capacity. The combination of moisture stress and poor soil fertility is the limiting factor for agricultural production. There is a high prevalence of crop pests and disease, and no utilization of treatments or chemical fertilizers - so yields per hectare are very low.
One of the most important determinants of wealth is the ownership of livestock in general and ownership of plough oxen in particular. Ownership of a pair of oxen allows better off households to prepare their land on time and rent-in the land of poor and very poor households on a contractual basis. The most common livestock diseases include pasteurellosis (all livestock), black leg (cattle and equines) and liver fluke (sheep and cattle). Regarding livestock production, goats are dominant. There is a high prevalence of livestock disease in the area and intervention in this regard is minimal. However, the area has uncultivated land that can be used as grazing to enhance livestock production.
Poor physical infrastructure and complete obstruction of transportation during the rainy seasons also increase the problem of access to food and cash income. A substantial part of the livelihood zone, particularly areas along the river bank, are completely inaccessible even during the dry season.
In a typical year, better-off and middle households rely upon livestock and crop sales as a means of generating cash income. For the poor and the very poor the productive safety net program (PSNP) is the major source of cash income even in a typical year in many woredas in the LZ. The Safety Net programme is implemented (particularly in the eastern parts of the LZ) for six months in a year and beneficiaries are paid mainly cash.
Markets
Market access is bad in this livelihood zone. Trade interaction across the river valley is minimal during the dry season and totally impossible during the kremt (rainy) season. Poor physical infrastructure and the remote location of the livelihood zone are the major limiting factors that restrict trade with external markets as well as between different markets within the livelihood zone.
1Fieldwork for the current profile was undertaken in October 2007. The information presented refers to September 2005-August 2006 (EC Meskerem 1998 to Nehase 1998), a good year by local standards. Provided there are no fundamental and rapid shifts in the economy, the information in this profile is expected to remain valid for approximately five years (i.e. until 2012). ). The exchange rate January 2006 1USD = 8.767 ETB.
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Abay Beshilo Basin Livelihood Zone
May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr.
Rainy Seasons Dry Kremt Bega (dry season) Belg
Legend cons. green harvest weeding planting
shoats cattle/shoats land prep cattle
Other
Rainfall Pattern
May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr
MaizeHaricot bean
SorghumTeff
Livestock sales
Milk productionCrop sales
MalariaHunger seasonLocal labor
Cattle in heat
As crop production is very small, almost all agricultural products are consumed locally and whatever is supplied to the local market does not exceed the local demand. Haricot beans are the only crop supplied to external markets in urban areas (Dejen, Mota and Debre Tabor) as well as Dessie and Addis Ababa. When grain is unavailable in the local market during the hunger season, maize is supplied to the livelihood zone from surplus producing areas in Gojam and other regions. Livestock and livestock products are sold in the major towns within the livelihood zone. The only opportunity in terms of employment is the local agricultural labor.
Seasonal Calendar
Of all agricultural activities, land preparation (March-June) and weeding (July-September) are the most laborious and time-consuming activities. Agriculture is entirely dependent on kremt rains that last from June to September. Maize is harvested green from September to October and the main food crops, sorghum and teff, are harvested in November. Except in December and January when both cattle and goats are sold, different types of livestock are sold at different times of the year. Goats are sold around the major Christian Festivals (New Year, Christmas and Easter); cattle are sold in the months when there is no need for oxen for agricultural activities. Whilst migratory labor is not common, some people travel to Tapi, Metema, Wollega, Nazareth, Bale Goba and Humera for work in December and January. Local employment opportunities are available for a relatively longer period of time starting with weeding in July to harvesting in November. The hunger season and the period of highest dependence on market for food purchase lasts for about two months in September and October.
Wealth is determined by land owned and cultivated, livestock possession (plough oxen, cattle and goats) There is a big difference in the ownership of land, with the better-off owning three times more land than the very poor. Differences in land cultivated are even greater ranging from 0-1 timad for the very poor to 8-10 timads for the better-off. This reflects the fact that the poor and very poor do not have oxen and so are unable to cultivate all their own land, and so rent out part of their land to the middle and better-off with an equal (half) crop sharing arrangement.
Sources of Food – A good year (2005-06) The contribution of own crop production to the annual food requirement of the different households positively correlates with the economic status of the wealth groups, consistently increasing from the very poor to the better-off. In a typical year, while the middle and better-off households cover more than 75% of their annual food needs, the poor and very poor can only afford to cover slightly more than 40% and 30% of their requirement respectively.
All wealth groups, though to a different extent, partially rely on the purchase of food to make up their annual food deficit. The contribution purchase food ranges from 5% to the better-off to more than 50% for the very poor. Consumption of livestock products is only relevant to the better-off and middle. However, the better-off consume more as a result of
In the graph, food access is expressed as a percentage of minimum food requirements, taken as an average food energy intake of 2100 kcals per person per day.
owning a larger number of livestock. The poor and the very poor receive food from the PSNP program.
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V.Poor Poor Middle Better-off
Payment in kind
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Purchase
livestock prod.
crops
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Abay Beshilo Basin Livelihood Zone
Sources of Cash – a good year (2005-06) The graph provides a breakdown of total cash income according to income source.
Incomes in this livelihood zone are generally low. There are differences in the composition and relative importance of income options available to the different wealth groups. The middle and the better-off get most of their income from livestock and crops sales, whilst the poor and the very poor are dependent on self-employment (firewood and charcoal sales), local agricultural labor, a little labor migration and the safety net program. In all except the very poor wealth group, livestock provide more income than crops.
Annual income (ETB) 900-1200 1300-1500 1400-1800 2250-2650
Expenditure Patterns – a good year (2005-06)
Annual expenses are divided into eight different categories. All wealth groups purchase vetch, the very poor, poor and middle also purchase staple food (sorghum) in addition the very poor also purchase maize. With the exception of the very poor, all wealth groups invest in animal drugs and tools. The middle and better off also hire local labor. The poor and the very poor have limited resources to invest in production of either crops or livestock.
The graph provides a breakdown of total cash expenditure by category of expenditure.
The amount of cash spent on each category as well as the quantity and quality of items purchased varies depending on the economic status of each socio-economic group.
All wealth groups except the better-off purchase staple food. Non-staple food purchase by the very poor is higher as they purchase more pulses than the other wealth groups whose own production is marginally more diverse. While expenditure on staple food decreases with increasing wealth, expenditure on clothing and social services follow the reverse trend.
Hazards In this Livelihood Zone, erratic rains, pest infestation, livestock disease and malaria are the recurring problems affecting agricultural productivity and human wellbeing. Erratic rains. Drought, which can include both insufficient rainfall and uneven distribution over the rainy season, is the single most important cause of acute food insecurity in the livelihood zone. Crop pests are a chronic problem in the livelihood zone, of which the most hazardous are stalk borer (sorghum and maize), Wollo bush crickets (teff), aphids (all crops), and cut worm. Root rot is also a problem.
Livestock disease. Anthrax (cattle and goat), goat pox, black leg, and internal and external parasites (cattle and goats)
Malaria. Endemic and highly prevalent especially in September and October - the months immediately after the rainy seasons. In years of high incidence, food security can be affected because farmers may not be able to work during the critical seasons of agricultural activity and labor migration.
Weed. Striga (sorghum and maize)
Coping Strategies
Coping strategies employed by different wealth groups vary depending upon various factors including phase and frequency of the hazard and the asset base of households.
Sale of labor and labor migration. This strategy is particularly employed by the poor and the very poor. Compared to the other wealth groups, poor and very poor households have fewer options that they can use in bad years. Their main
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100%
V.Poor Poor Middle Better-off
other
safety nets
agr.labour
self-employment
livestock sales
l/stock prod. sales
crop sales
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Abay Beshilo Basin Livelihood Zone
option is to increase the number of people working and the duration (both locally and outside of the zone).
Increased sale of livestock. This is an important strategy for better-off and middle households. These wealth groups try to maintain the productive assets until all efforts to protect asset depletion are no more applicable. Sale of livestock is less of an option for the poor and very poor who may only be able to sell a small number of additional goats (poor) and poultry (poor and very poor).
Switching of expenditure from non-food to staple food items. This is a common strategy for expanding purchases in a bad year. In a bad year, households report reducing expenditure on a range of non-food items and purchase staple food. Some of these strategies have very negative effect in the case of reduced minimum non-staple items such as expenditure on schooling basic inputs. Reduced expenditure on non-food items can be purchasing either lower quality or small quantity.
Firewood and charcoal sales. This is specifically employed by poor and very poor households only.
Summary Communities residing within the Abay-Beshilo Livelihood zone suffer from chronic food insecurity due to a combination of various factors including erratic rains, small landholdings, highly degraded farmlands, infertile soil, pest infestation, livestock disease and malaria. Poor physical infrastructure is also a serious problem in the livelihood zone. Trade interaction across the rivers valley is very minimal during the dry season and totally impossible during the kremt season. The middle and better-off can barely produce much more than their annual food needs, whilst the poor/very poor are dependant on food purchases. The main food crops cultivated are sorghum, teff and maize. Livestock are an important source of income for the middle and better-off households with over half of their income coming from livestock sales and livestock product sales.
The very poor one-fifth of the population cultivate very small amounts of land - less than they have available, because they do not have oxen to provide draught power for land preparation. They are forced to purchase a significant portion of annual food needs, and their major income sources are precarious: local labor, PSNP and firewood sales.
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CBP - Central Highland Barley and Potato.doc
Livelihood Profile Amhara Region, Ethiopia
Central Highland Barley and Potato Livelihood Zone (CBP) August 2007 1 Zone Description
The Central Highland Barley and Potato livelihood zone (CBP) spreads across Bure, Dega Damot, Dembecha, Jabi Tehnan, Mecha, Quarit, Sekela, and Yilmana Densa woredas in West Gojam; Ankasha, Banja, Fagta Lakoma,, Guagusa Shikudad, and Guangua woredas in Agew; and Awabel, Bibugn, Debay Telatgen, Enarj Enawga, Enbise Sar Midir, Enemay, Goncha Siso Enese, Gonje, Hulet Ej Enese, Michakel and Senan woredas in East Gojam. The majestic Choke and Lake mountains are prominent features of the terrain in this predominantly dega area. Temperatures average a temperate 5 to 15 degrees Celsius. The source of the Blue Nile is located in this zone, reliably fed by the substantial 1200 to 1400 mm of rainfall that falls on the zone yearly. Vegetation is moderately dense, comprised mostly of eucalyptus and juniper trees. Bamboo is grown around the homestead for construction of household furniture and equipment. The population is very dense, at 210 to 220 people per km.2 In most cases humans and livestock share water from the same source (rivers and streams); when they don’t humans use wells and springs. There is no payment for water for humans except in woreda towns. The zone is well connected to surrounding areas via the Debre Markos-Enjibara highway which runs through it.
Mixed production of crops and livestock are the cornerstone of this zone’s economy. Agriculture activities are dependent on the kremt rains which fall from May to October. Some households use irrigation, particularly for potato production. The main crops cultivated are barley and potato, the bulk of it produced for household consumption. Extensive degradation and high soil acidity have reduced the agricultural potential of the region. Manure from cattle is an important productive input in this zone. Draught power is provided mainly by horses, which are cheaper to maintain than oxen. Land preparation is done by men. Women assist with weeding and harvesting activities. Hiring labour is untypical for any wealth group. The main hazards to crop production are late blight which affects potatoes, and smut and rust which affect barley. Traditional disease and pest control measures are used to prevent the spread of disease. This zone suffers from a food deficit every year.
Raising sheep, cattle and horses is a key economic strategy. Sheep are the more commonly sold livestock, usually between the ages of 4 to 12 months. The demand for sheep peaks during religious festivals. Cattle are valuable possessions mostly owned by wealthier households, and serve as longer term investments. Few cattle are sold. Mature cows are sometimes sold after 7 or 8 years of age, and thereafter replaced from within the herd. Livestock free-graze and feed on crop residues and/or collected grass. Children are responsible for herding livestock. The main hazards to livestock production are pasteurellosis, internal parasites, black leg, and anthrax. Internal parasites affect all livestock, pasteurellosis in sheep and cattle, and black leg in cattle. Treatments for these diseases, including vaccinations, are available from both the Bureau of Agriculture and Rural Development (BoARD) and the market for cash. The same applies to inputs for livestock production.
Other important economic activities are wage labour and the sale of eucalyptus trees. Migratory labour opportunities are available in Shindi, Humera, Wollega, and Metemma for maize and sesame weeding and harvest. Migration is a male activity, undertaken from June to August and from November to December.
1Field work for the current profile was undertaken from 4/17/2007 to 5/2/2007. The information presented refers to October 2005-September 2006 (EC Tekemt 1998 to Meskerem 1999), a relatively good year by local standards (i.e. a year of above average production and rural food security, when judged in the context of recent years). Provided there are no fundamental and rapid shifts in the economy, the information in this profile is expected to remain valid for approximately five years (i.e. until 2011). The reference year exchange rate: 1USD=8.82 ETB.
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CBP - Central Highland Barley and Potato.doc
Casual urban labour opportunities, predominantly for men, are available in neighbouring towns, peaking from June to August, though they are available throughout the year. The poor and very poor groups buy eucalyptus trees from the middle and better-off groups; older trees tend to be split and sold mainly for firewood, and younger trees are sold as poles for home construction. This happens throughout the year. There are no specific credit programmes in this zone, though some households take credit from the Amhara Credit and Savings Institution.
Markets
Potatoes are the main crop traded. They are transported from local markets to markets in Addis Ababa, Bahir Dar, and Gondar. There is demand all year round, though the peak trading period is from July to September. Maize and finger millet are imported into the zone when local food supplies have been exhausted, from June to December. They are brought in from surrounding areas in Birsheleko, Bure and Shinde.
Sheep and cattle are the popular livestock in the market. Sheep sales increase during the religious festival season in April (Fasika/Easter), September (EnkutatashNew Year) and January (Genna/Christmas). Cattle demand peaks in March and April, though both types of animals are sold throughout the year.
Poorly maintained roads winding through the mountains are the biggest barrier to the inflow of traders and commodities into the zone. Residents of the zone usually walk up to 6 hours to visit the market.
In this chronically food insecure zone, in normal times 75% of households have at least one member who migrates to Metema, Humera, Wollega, Shindi, and Birsheleko in search of agricultural work. The first wave of migrants leaves between June and September for weeding labour, and a second wave leaves for harvesting labour in November and December. A minority of some 25% seek opportunities within the towns in surrounding areas.
Seasonal Calendar Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan FebMar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Nov Dec Jan Feb
Seasons
Legend harvest Weeding planting
Land Preparation
Other
Labour migration
Rainfall Pattern
Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb
Meher
Eucalyptus salesHunger seasonFood purchase
Urban labour
Cattle (in-heat)
Livestock sales
Livestock birthsMilk production
PotatoBarley
Kiremt TibiBega
There are four main seasons in the zone, namely bega (dry) from March to May, kremt (rains) from June to August (main rainy season), tibi from September to November, and meher from December to February (harvest season). Agricultural activities are planned around the kremt rainy season. Land preparation for short-cycle potato cultivation begins in January, whilst for long-cycle barley it begins in June. Eucalyptus sales peak in April, May and June. Urban labor is most common from June to August, whilst milk output peaks from July to November. The food purchase season is relatively lengthy, peaking for 6 months from July to December.
The livestock ‘season’ begins in July soon after the rains commence. An increase in cattle sales is seen between March and May as households seek to purchase draught power for the upcoming land preparation period, whilst sheep sales peak during festival months (April, September and January).
The main determinants of wealth are the amount of land owned, the ownership of cattle and sheep, and the ownership of horses for draught power. Land holdings in the zone are generally small, ranging from 0-2 timads, 2-4 timads, 3-5 timads and 3.5-5 timads for the very poor, poor, middle and better-off respectively.2 Ownership of horses is important for productivity because access to draught power determines household capacity to utilise available land holdings. The poor who haven’t the capital to obtain their own draught power, or who lack family labour, are compelled to rent-out land to the better-off, who have the capacity to cultivate more than they own. Land rental arrangements usually divide the harvest from the rented land equally between the two parties. The biggest barrier to poor household ownership of draught power is the lack of capital; the main constraints on crop production among the poor are land degradation; shortage of farmland and crop diseases affecting barley and potato.
Livestock ownership is also important for building household capacity to cope with livelihood shocks. The interest in generating new stock favours the ownership of mature female animals. Sheep provide most of the regular income from livestock. Cattle are more valuable assets, and they are owned only by the middle and better-off households. They are longer term investments. Beyond a lack of money, the biggest barrier to ownership of livestock is lack of feed: livestock production in the zone is limited by diminishing availability of grazing land. The better off at times grow pasture on a portion of their land to feed their cattle.
The search for work is the main livelihood strategy for poor households, and so they depend on the availability of workers in the family for a significant portion of their income.
Sources of Food – A good year (2005-06) Crop production accounts for 60% to 70% of the better-off households’ food, and around half of the middle group’s. The poor and very poor obtain one-third and one-fifth of their food from own crop production. The main crops consumed by all wealth groups are purchased maize and finger millet, and home-grown potatoes and barley. Food purchase increases in importance as wealth decreases. Vetch is also purchased, the middle and better-off groups purchasing more than the poor. The zone is not in the Safety Net programme and received no food aid during the reference year, even though there is a chronic food gap for all apart from the better-off.
In the graph, food access is expressed as a percentage of minimum food requirements, taken as an average food energy intake of 2100 kcals per person per day.
2 1 timad equals 0.25 ha
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CBP - Central Highland Barley and Potato.doc
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V.Poor Poor Middle Better-off
firewood and tree sales
labour sales
livestock sales
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crop sales
Payment in kind provides on between 5% and 10% of food for the very poor, poor, and middle households, mainly for work done outside the zone. The participation of the middle households in work migration, unusual elsewhere, reflects the high levels of poverty and food insecurity in the livelihood zone. The consumption of eggs, butter, and milk is general indicator of well being. The limited contribution of livestock products, between 1% and 2% for the middle and better-off, confirms that households cannot afford to consume luxury items. The significant contribution of purchases demonstrates low self- reliance arising from low productivity and small land holdings. Poor market access (due to absence of road access, mountainous topography and distance from the market) and the significant contribution of food purchases to household consumption, accentuate household vulnerability to food market shocks.
Sources of Cash – a good year (2005-06)
The graph provides a breakdown of total cash income according to income source. Annual income (ETB)
1850-2350
1750-2250
1950-2350
2250-2750
The majority of households earn most of their income from agricultural wage labor. Most of this is earned from labour migration, whilst a smaller contribution comes from casual labour, mostly construction, in local towns. Paid work provides three-quarters of income for the very poor and poor households, and half of the middle.
Livestock sales give between one-third and one-half of better-off income, one-quarter for the middle, one tenth for the poor and 5% for the very poor – all mostly from sheep Chickens Are also sold by everybody.
Livestock product sales contribute 2% to the very poor and poor incomes, and between 5% and 10% to the middle and better off households respectively. The poor households sell mainly eggs, while the better-off also sell butter. The sale of potatoes is an important source of income for the better-off, and overall crop sales average one-quarter of their income, while the middle and poor earn a less distinguished 5%. Eucalyptus sales and firewood sales play an important role in income for all wealth groups.
Expenditure Patterns – a good year (2005-06)
Purchasing staple food is the largest expense for all groups. Staple food expenditure increases as wealth and crop production decrease. There is limited cash left for income for non-staple food purchases, comprised mainly of pulses (for all groups) and potatoes (for the poor and very poor). This takes up 3% of very poor and poor expenditure and one-tenth of the middle and better-off’s.
The graph provides a breakdown of total cash expenditure according to category of expenditure.
Household items, namely kerosene, utensils, soap and milling fees comprise the second largest expenditure for all groups, taking up between 10% and 20% of very poor and poor expenditure income, and a quarter of the middle and better-offs. The bulk of the expenditure on this line is spent on milling.
The better-off households invest one-fifth of expenditure on livestock restocking, credit repayment, and animal drugs. This reflects an effort to build and protect livestock holdings. The middle spends 10% of total expenditure on animal drugs, while the poor expend only 1%.
Investment in education and access to health services is 3% for the very poor and poor, and 5% for the middle and better-off. Clothes expenditure comprises 7% of expenditure for the very poor, poor, and better off, and 8% for the middle.
Hazards
The major hazard in the zone is land degradation which not only undermines present productivity but also threatens future crop yields. Soils in the zone are infertile and acidic.
The prevalence of potato blight is a chronic problem affecting potato yields.
The shortage of pasture and forage diminishes livestock condition, and prevents ownership of larger livestock herds.
Hailstorms and frost are further hazards occurring every year.
Coping Strategies
The poor households’ general lack of access to productive activities forces them to intensify the search for migrant work opportunities during bad years. People migrate to more distant areas, and additional household members join the search for work. The sale of firewood is an additional coping strategy for the poor. The extent to which firewood sales can be expanded is limited by availability of firewood and ability of the market to absorb the increased supply of firewood.
The better-off respond to hardship through the increased sale of livestock. However, existing livestock herds are small in the zone and major or prolonged shocks can seriously deplete herds. Their secondary strategy is to increase the sale of eucalyptus.
Summary
Extensive degradation and high soil acidity severely undermine agricultural production in this dega zone. Crop production is particularly low for the poor and very poor who are constrained by poor availability of cultivable land and the lack of draught power. Low crop production increases household dependence on the market to access food. The commonly purchased crops are finger millet and maize, and modest amounts of potatoes and pulses. The participation of middle households in labor activities in exchange for food is indicative of the high levels of food insecurity in the zone. Poor market access and the significant contribution of food purchases to household consumption, accentuates household vulnerability to food market shocks. The better-off are distinguished as the only wealth group earning more than half their income from primary production activities – with potatoes falling a long way behind livestock as a cash earner. The search for agricultural work opportunities is the main income earning strategy for the very poor, poor and middle households. Expenditure on social services and clothes is low for all wealth groups.
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South West Woina dega Teff Livelihood Zone
Livelihood Profile Amhara Region, Ethiopia
South West Woina Dega Teff Livelihood Zone August 2007 1
Zone Description
The South West Woina Dega Teff livelihood zone is one of the surplus producing areas in Amhara Region. It incorporates parts of woredas in West Gojam (Yilmana Densa), Agew (Ankasha, Guagusa Shikudad) and East Gojam (Aneded, Awabel, Baso Liden, Bibugn, Debay Telatgen, Dejen, Enarj Enawga, Enbise Sar Midir, Enemay, Goncha Siso Enese, Hulet, Ej Enese and Sebel Bereta). It is in a primarily woina dega agro-ecological zone and the topography is mostly plain. The zone is within the Abay (Blue Nile) Drainage Basin. Tindefeji, Yenjuit, Sihoa, Bogena and Chemoga are the major rivers crossing the zone. Widespread deforestation has resulted in a landscape almost devoid of natural vegetation apart from stands of eucalyptus trees around homesteads. The population density is moderate.
Although there is a very high potential for irrigation, agriculture is totally rainfed. Total annual rainfall ranges approximately from 900-1200 mm per year. The zone has a long term mean annual rainfall of 1181 mm, and in most years precipitation is very favourable for the cultivation of different crops, the most important of which are teff, wheat and maize, grown for both consumption and sale. The zone usually produces a food surplus. Ox-plowing is used to prepare the land, whilst weeding and harvesting are the most labor intensive crop production activities, for which the middle and better-off groups pay for labor in cash. The main crop pests and diseases are Wollo bush cricket, African boll worm, stalk borer, aphids and red teff worm. Treatment is available from the market and in some cases from the BoARD for cash. Agricultural inputs (fertilizers and improved seed) are also available either from the market or BoARD for credit and cash. The main types of livestock are sheep, cattle and horses which free-graze and feed on crop residues and/or collected grass. Water is obtained from both major and minor rivers, hand-dug wells and sometimes springs. Humans in some cases share water from rivers with animals. The main diseases affecting animals are black leg, anthrax, sheep and goat pox and pasteurellosis. Treatment is available either from the market or the BoARD for cash, as are livestock inputs such as vaccines. In comparison to the neighbouring Blue Nile gorge area disease prevalence in SWT is lower and lactation length is longer. Apart from crop and livestock and butter sales (and honey sales by the wealthier) the other element of income concerns only the poorer households: paid work.
Markets
Debre Markos and the woreda towns hold the major grain and livestock markets in the zone. There is good market access since the road network is relatively good and most kebeles (village areas) in the zone are reasonably close to the main road and to the main urban centres. All these markets serve as the centers of supply for local consumers and transit to other markets outside the Livelihood Zone. The main crops sold are teff, maize and wheat from January to June. Teff is the only item exported to other regions mainly Tigray and Addis Ababa. Livestock (sheep and cattle traded all year round) and the other crops are supplied to local consumers. Maize and wheat/sorghum are the main grains bought locally or from kebeles in the nearby Blue Nile gorge lowlands. Most paid work is found in the local rural area though some is performed in the local towns and less outside the zone.
1Field work for the current profile was undertaken from September to October 2007. The information presented refers to September 2005-August 2006 (EC Meskerem 1998 to Nehase 1998), a good year by local standards. Provided there are no fundamental and rapid shifts in the economy, the information in this profile is expected to remain valid for approximately five years (i.e. until 2012). The reference year exchange rate: 1USD = 8.59 ETB.
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South West Woina dega Teff Livelihood Zone
M ay. June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. M ar. Apr.
Land preparation from March to June, weeding from June to August and harvesting from October to January are the main agricultural activities. Teff and wheat are the main short cycle crops grown whilst maize is the main long-cycle crop. There is no intercropping. Local agricultural employment is available mainly from July to December. Debre Markos and other urban centres in the zone also offer employment from January to March. Poor and very poor households also migrate mainly to Humera (Tigray), Teppi (Benishangul Gumuz), Arsi Negelle and Wellega (Oromia) in different seasons every year looking for employment opportunities.
Wealth Breakdown
Wealth is determined by the size of land owned by households as well as by herd size in general and ownership of plough oxen in particular. On the basis of these criteria, four distinct wealth groups (very poor, poor, middle and better-off) were identified. Households also differ in the ownership eucalyptus trees and beehives. While beehives are owned
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South West Woinadega Livelihood Zone
by the better-off and middle households, eucalyptus trees are owned by all, but wealthier people have far more trees. The better-off also grow beans which the poor do not; this is because the former own enough land and plough-oxen and they commonly rent-in extra land from poorer farmers who have no oxen. These gain the advantage of half the harvest on that land – a harvest gained from better cultivation than they could possibly have achieved, given the capacity of the renter to make sufficient and timely ploughing passes especially for the demanding teff, and also to buy fertilizers and other inputs – although these are expensive in relation even to wealthier farmers’ budgets and are often used sparingly, below the recommended rate. They also bear the cost of employing local labour during weeding and harvesting months. In terms of livestock the poorer households lack money and access to credit to keep more whilst the wealthier lack grazing land, animal feed and improved animal breeds. There are few other sources of income generation, although there are some government attempts to help the landless rural youth benefit from non-agricultural activities in their locality.
Sources of Food – A good year (2005-06) Own crop production is the most important source of food for all wealth groups. Maize, wheat and teff are the main sources of food for all groups, even providing just above half the staple food of the very poor. Better-off and middle households essentially and more than cover their staple food requirement from their own production, although the middle sell teff and buy the cheaper maize. For the poorer groups staples purchase is vital for survival.
Consumption of livestock products is only enjoyed by the better-off and middle wealth groups, though its contribution in calorie terms is small. Overall this is a picture of a comparatively productive and food secure area.
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
120%
V.Poor Poor Middle Better-off
gifts
food aid
purchase
payment in kind
livestock prod.
In the graph, food access is expressed as a percentage of minimum food requirements, taken as an average food energy intake of 2100 kcals per person per day.
Sources of Cash – a good year (2005-06)
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
V.Poor Poor Middle Better-off
employment
l/stock prod.sales
livestocksales
crop sales
Annual income (ETB)
1300-1800
2050-2550
3750-4250
5550-6050
The graph provides a breakdown of total cash income according to income source.
The proportion of crop sales in household earnings (including here eucalyptus sales) is higher here than in most other livelihood zones, and even the very poor make half their money from crops alone. Everybody sells teff and wheat, but the wealthier also sell some pulses. The real differentiation between wealthier and poorer households is in where they get the balance of their earnings. The wealthier can rely on livestock and product sales: cattle, goats, chickens, butter, eggs, skins and honey. The poor sell goats, chickens and eggs, but they must also undertake paid work – particularly the very poor.
There is only a small amount of petty trade performed by villagers in the zone.
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South West Woina dega Teff Livelihood Zone
Expenditure Patterns – a good year (2005-06)
The expenditure categories of all wealth groups are similar except that the better-off do not purchase staple food.
Staple food is the highest single expense for very poor households spend most in staple food purchases whilst they spend much less than wealthier families on non-staple foods in absolute cash terms (their total expenditure, like their income, is one-third of wealthier families’ income, or less). The poorer purchase vetch whilst the wealthier buy sugar and oil.
Again in absolute cash terms the expenditure by wealthier farmers on inputs is much higher than the poorer farmers, and they spend more too on social services (school and medical costs), although this expenditure is proportionately small across the board.
The graph provides a breakdown of total cash expenditure according to category of expenditure. The graph provides a breakdown of total c
The graph provides a breakdown of total cash expenditure according
The graph provides a breakdown of total cash expenditure according to category of expenditure.
Hazards
Crop pests: Wollo bush cricket (teff), African boll worm (pulses), stalk borer (maize), aphids (pulses) and red teff worm.
Livestock disease: Black leg (cattle), anthrax (cattle), sheep pox, pasteurellosis (cattle and sheep). Increased cost of inputs: Particularly fertilizer (& the low supply of improved seeds) may be seen as a man-made hazard to production.
Coping Strategies
Intensification of labour sales. This strategy is employed by the poor and the very poor, extending the duration of work migration and involving more members of the household in both local and migratory paid work.
Minimize non-essential expenditures. This is strategy employed by all wealth groups. In a bad year, households report reducing expenditure on a range of non-food items in favour of purchasing staple food. The middle and better-off households also use up grain and pulses from their stock and reduce consumption.
Increased sale of livestock. This is an important strategy for better-off and middle households. But they try to maintain fertile females until all efforts to protect assets are defeated by want.
Summary
The South West Woina Dega Teff livelihood zone is one of the surplus producing areas in Amhara Region. The most important determinants of wealth are the size of land owned by households and the ownership of livestock in general and ownership of plough oxen in particular. Own crop production covers the highest proportion of the annual food requirement for all wealth groups. The main crops consumed are maize, wheat and teff, although teff and wheat are also the most sold crops. In a typical year, middle and better-off wealth groups rely on crop and livestock sales as the means of generating nearly all cash income, whilst poorer households must also engage in paid work, local and migratory. The main livestock are sheep, cattle and horses. Livestock sales contribute relatively more to the income of the middle and better-off than to that of the poor and very poor.
Road access is good; this promotes relatively active trade interaction within the zone and between the zone and external markets. Expansion of the road network can further enhance the economic situation of communities. Crop pest, livestock disease and unaffordable input prices have been the major problems affecting rural communities in general and poor and very poor households in particular. Coping strategies include the intensification of labor sales, minimizing non-essential expenditure and increasing livestock sales.
