Lectura No. 1 Operaciones y Mercado Global

8/13/2019 Lectura No. 1 Operaciones y Mercado Global

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Manufacturing Strategy inGlobal Markets An Operations

Management ModelAlberto De Toni

University of Udine Italy andRoberto Filippini and Cipriano Forza

University of P adua Italy

Introduction

Twelve countrie s and over 300 million con sum ers are involved in the EuropeanCommunity EC) market integration. This is much larger than the US m arket.The economic, monetary, fiscal and commercial integration has already begunand will be com pleted during the 1990s. Th ere are obstacles, such as language,political and cultural differences, as well as problems in transport and distribution,but community co-ordination is improving.

The recent developments in Eastern Europe and Germany have clearlyaccelerated EC market integration[l]. \^^th this perspective it is possible to explainthe large increase in alliances and acquisitions between European and Americancompanies. The reduction of tiade barriers within the EC market will help to makeconsumer needs more uniform, a tendency which already exists on a global scale[2].

Thus there is a growing tendency towards a global market in differentindustries. Among the environmental factors which trigger off the globalizationprocess within the EC process of integration are rationalization of distributionchannels and changes in government policies[3].

Globalization is growing as far as both finished products and co mp onen ts areconcerned. The refrigerator market, for example, is not yet global as thereare still many differences between the needs of families in different countries,while for certain refrigerator parts the market is already global.

In global industries competitive advantages derive in large part from theintegration and co-ordination on an international scale of the various activities

of the value chain, while in the so-called m ultidomestic markets the competitiveadvantages are specific to each country and different local strategies areadopted [4]. In global strategy it is of vital importance to reduce total costs aswell as design, production and distribution times. Distribution in Europe willtend to reward low-cost producers[5], in this sense the EC will also be anappetizing market for American companies which are already used to servingseveral different markets and to f cing strong price competition[6], while changeswill be required in those European companies which only operate in specificmarke ts and focus on particular typ es of performance e.g. quality). ^ ^

With regard to manufacturing, advantages can be obtained in a global strategy ^ produ tion mm.geme ry, , L xu ia: _t- xT ij r 1 . i ^ I- / i No. 4, 1992, pp. 7-18. MC

through the effect ive ut il izat ion of scale ec on om ie s; the concen trat ion of learning university Press, 0144-


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IJOPM12,4

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Figure 1.Conceptual Model

in one plant or a small number of plants; the integration of operations; the coordination or the concentration of activities to support production and producdevelopment; the use in general of world-class manufacturing policies[7]; anthe so-called stag e 4 [8].

This article presents a conceptual model containing all the operations whiccan be utilized to understand and to single out the m ost important oppo rtunitiand decisions in order to obtain competitive advantage in the pre sen ce of globstrategies.

The onceptual ModelThe proposed model considers the competitive advantages, the performancof the operating system as a sou rce of competitive adv antages and thoperations articulated in four phases: design, purchasing, production andistribution. Th ese four phases repre sen t what can be defined as the operatiovalue chain .

For each of the four phases the study of the implications deriving fromglobalization is tackled by utilizing three groups of strategic decision categorie

(1) organization and management;(2) management systems;(3) technologies.

For each phase of the operation value chain, the model makes it possible tobserv e th e influence of decision categories on the performance of the operatinsystem and on the competitive advantages which the company can obtain aa result.

Figure 1 shows the proposed conceptual model.

The Operation Value hainThe phases which are considered by the model are those which make up thoperation value chain: design and development of products, purchasing or ra

Organizatii

Management

Technologies

Configur ation and co-ordination of activities agreements and coaiitionsorganizationai structure and integration nnechanisms managerial roles

I Simultaneous product-process design co-makership total qualitycontrol just-in-tlme distribu tion resource planning

i l L Process technologies in design tran sport handling storage production

and distribution phasesI Inform ation technologies for collectio n elabo ration and comm unication

of informationI Product technologies

Performance

Total cost Quality Timeliness of

delivery Time to introduce

new products Dependability Flexibility

Competitiveadvantages

Price Product

differentiation Service

differentiation


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materials and components, manufacturing of components and assembly offinished products, and d istribution.

It should be noted that in Figure 1 the design ph ase has been kept separatefrom the other phases. The reason for this is that only in the case of engineer-to-order firms is the design ph ase routinely performed as the first operation,followed by purchasing, manufacturing and distribution. In other firms of the mak e-to-order , assemb le-to-order and m ake-to -stock type s, designis an activity which is not synchronous with the other operations, which areinstead carried out in a cyclical fashion.

With reference to the primary activities of Po rte r's value chain[9]: inboundlogistics, operations, outbound logistics, marketing/sales and service, and tosupport activities: procurement, technology development, human resourcemanagement, and firm infrastructure, the foUowing should be emphasized.

Two primary activities of the value chain, that is to say marketing/salesand servic es, have not been taken into consideration bec ause this modelis concerned with operatio ns . Furth ermo re, when the downstreamprimary activities of the value chain are of vit l importance for competitiveadvantage, the international competition strategy tends to be multi-domestic; while in tho se industries w here u pstream primary activitiesand sup port activities, like technology developm ent, are critical, globalcompetition is more frequent [4].

The outbound logistics are the same as in our distribution phase; theproduction phase also includes the inbound logistics.

The support activity classified as procurement in Porter's model(purchasing of raw materials, machinery,\ buildings, etc.) has beenrestricted to one of the activities which are described by this term:purchasing of only raw m aterials and compo nents, that is, those partswhich are cyclically purchased by the firms; in this ca se it is correct toconsider purchasing as a primary activity, beca use it plays an effectiverole in the physical creation of the product [9]\

The design phase is also considered a primary activity because it toois involved in the physical creation of the product.

Operating System Performance nd Com petitive dvantagesAs far as operating system performance and competitive advantages areconcerned, there are in literature contributions both by authors who clearlydistinguish them and by authors who introduce a single concept called competitivepriority.

Among the first, Schroeder and Lahr[10] propose seven distinct objectivesof the operating system: manufacturing cost, quality (conformance) expressedas a cost of quality or in terms of cus tom er satisfaction, inventory turnover,customer service, cycle time the time from receipt of raw ma terials until theproduct is in the customer's hands), time to introduce new products, time tochange capacity. The same authors propose the following as examples of

ManufacturingStrategy in

Global Markets


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IJOPM competitive advantages: unit cost, quality, serv ice, capacity, and pro ces s12,4 technology.

As far as the authors who introduce the concept of competitive priority ar

concerned, Hayes et al [8] propose five classes of variable: cos t, productperform ance, dependability, fiexibility, and innovativeness. Ferdows et al [ ]propose four principal competitive dimensions: quality, dependability, cost

2Q efficiency and flexibility. According to Ward et al [ 2] the re are five competitive_ ^ _ _ ^ _ ^ _ ^ ^ _ priorit ies: costs, delivery performance (dependabili ty and speed), quality

fiexibility (product m ix and vo lume), and innovativeness.In the model which is proposed in this article the aspects of th e performance

which can be obtained from the operating system considered as sourceof competitive advantages are g rouped into the following cla sse s:

total cost (meaning the unit cost of the product including all costs: designdevelopment, manufacturing, distribution, inventory costs, etc.);

product quality;

timeliness of delivery;

time to introduce new products;

dependability (in product quality, delivery time, etc.) ;

flexibility (product mix and capacity) .

The previously mentioned performances coincide, in a large part, with thosproposed by Hill[13]: variable and fixed costs, quality, delivery time anddependability, flexibility both in product specifications and in production volum es

With reference to the general concept of competitive advantages, in theproposed model we define three types of advantage: price, productdifferentiation, service differentiation.

This definition of competitive advantages derives from the fact that, in genera lconsumers choose among several product alternatives, which include theconnected services, on the basis of the price-quality relationship. It is importanto underline how, for manufacturing companies, market success is becomingmore and more dependent on the ability to offer a balanced mix of productsand serv ices. T he Ehk between product and se rvice is becoming so tight tha

it is difficult to distinguish between product and service; in fact some authorare proposing the concept of service -enh ance d prod uct[14].

Strategic De cision ategoriesThe strategic decision categories in the manufacturing field are extensivelydiscussed in literature. Hayes et al [8] identify ten categories divided into struc-tural (capacity, facilities, technology, vertical integration) and infrastructural(production planning and control, quality, organization, workforce, new producdevelopment, performance me asurem ent system s). Skinner[15] propo ses fivstrategic decisional categories: structural (plant and equipment) and

infrastructural (production planning and control, organization and management


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labour and staffing, product design/engineering). Fine and Hax[16] propose sixstrategic decision-making areas, of which th ree are struc tural capacity, facilities,pro ces s and technologies) and thre e infrastructural product quality, humanresources, scope of new products).

In the proposed model three groups of strategic decisional variables areidentified:

1) organization and ma nagem ent; 2) managem ent system s; 3) technologies.

Th e categories which are proposed are in many ca ses the sam e as those whichhave already been indicated, but others are introduced with the objective ofunderlining all the elements and decisions which are significant in obtainingstrategies of a global type. Each group of categories can be referred to theoperation value chain and represents a framework within which managementmakes strategic choices which have operative implications and effects onperformance.

Th e first group of strategic decision categories organization and m anagement includes elem ents which can be traced back to th external and internalorganizational structu re of the company and to th e role of man agem ent; the seare:

configuration and co-ordination of the activities;the level of concen tration/decentralization of activities in the value chainand the way in which they are co-ordinated;agreements and coalitions;internal organization structures and integration mechanisms;managerial roles: the role of the manager in integrating activities to obtaina continuous improvement of the operating system.

The second group of strategic decision categories is represen ted by managementsystems, considered both as approaches to process management and as formaltechniques and procedures. Of those which are applicable to one or more phasesof the operation value chain we list the most important ones:

simultaneous produ ct-process design; co-makership; total quality control; just-in-time; distribution reso urc es planning.

The third and final group of strategic decision categories is represented bytechnologies. These can be divided into the following:

pro cess technologies of all the pha ses : design, tran spo rt, handling,storage, production and distribution;

ManufacturinStrategy i

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I JOPM information techno logies for collection, elaboration and communicatio12, 4 of data and information (information and comm unication sys tem s);

techno logies incorpo rated in the product aimed at improving quality an

reducing costs.Th e crossing of the thre e gro ups of strategic decision categories with the fouph ase s of the operation value chain makes it possible to identify 12 areas w hic

1 2 rep rese nt the implications in ter m s of oppo rtunities and decisions for th ^ ^ ^ ~ ^ ~ ^ ~ ~ realization of a global s trategy.

Implications of lobalizationMarket globalization requires achievement of high standards of performancin quality, timeliness, total costs and customer service. To reach these levelof performance simultaneously it is nec essa ry to change and improve al l

the phases in the value chain continuously. The proposed model is useful iidentifying the lines of action to be taken. In each phase (design, purchasingproduction and distribution) these actions must involve organization anmanagement, management systems, and technologies, that is the three groupof strategic decision categories. The effectiveness of the change depends othe degree to which functional-type logics, focused on single operating phaseare overcom e. Physical and informative p ro ce sses will have to be followed w ita horizontal and integrated approach. The groups of strategic decision categorieidentified in the model, are made up of variables which are concerned witprocesses and horizontal fiows. The actions to be taken, in the globalizatioperspective, will be presented below by strategic decision groups. Table summarizes these decisions and activities.

Organization and anagementThe configuration and the co-ordination of activities can lead to competitivadvantages. Among th e factors which favour th e concentration of activities th erare [4]:

scale econo mies; managem ent of the learning curve; the specific advantag es of each country ;

advantages which derive from the comm on localization of interrela teactivities such as product development and production.

On the other hand, factors which can encourage decentralization are:

easie r acce ss to know-how; be tt er adaptability to local dem and; tariff and custo ms ba rri ers ; risk of political change s.

With reference to the operation value chain, th e m ost favourable configurationof each phase can differ from the others. With regard to product design and


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Design

Choice of location ofdevelopment centres inleading environmentsCo-ordination amongdevelopment centres forthe exchange andincrease in know-howAgreements betweenproducers and/orsuppliers in thedevelopment of newproducts and in theimprovement of alreadyexisting ones

Purchasing

Choice of suppliers oninternational markets

Co-ordination in thepurchase of commonmaterialsAgreements withsuppliers on the globalscale and in the long term

Task force and committees as permanent organizationa

Production

Choice of plantrelocation to obtain anintegratedmanufacturing systemAgreements amongproducers to obtaineconomies of scale andaccess to know-howAgreements betweenproducers and/orsuppliers oftechnologies in theimprovement of theprocess

Distribution

Choice of companiesproviding distributionand/or informationservicesAgreements fordistribution in newmarketsAgreements withproducers and/ordistributors on theglobal scale to servethe same markets andto reduce distributioncosts

structures to favour multidimensional approach

Informal relations as a means of coping with the enormous information needs

Managerial roles as a means of integration (management internationalization)

Evaluation and reward systems which favour the attitude to integration and to continuousimprovement

Product-processstandardization policies ona global scale

Overlapping approachbetween different centresin the develop-

ment of productsSimultaneous productprocess design incollaboration withproduction units

Integrated and/orcentralized manage-ment of product anddocumentation changes

Co-makership policieswith transfer of thehighest standards to allsuppliersTransfer of managerialinnovation developed in

managing plants, in plant-supplier relations andfrom other suppliers

New methods of cost accounting and new performance

World-class manu-facturing, total qualitycontrol, and just-in-timepoliciesTransfer of manage-ment systems and skills

Aggregated planning ofplants according to globalneeds of the distributionsystem

measurement systems tototal cost and other performances including response time

Assisted designtechnologies for product-process standardization

Technologies forsimultaneous design

Transfer of producttechnological innovationsamong plants

Transfer towards suppliersof innovations in technicalprocesses developed incompany plants or byother suppliersInternational transfer oftechnological innovationsincorporated in rawmaterials and/orcomponents

Information technologies for collection, elaboration, and

Automatic productiontechniques to exploiteconomies of scaleLearning of newtechnological processesconcentrated in pilotplantsTransfer oftechnological innovationfrom plant to plant

Order and stockmanagement policies ona global scale throughdistribution requirementsplanning techniquesStorage and transport

systems managementon a global scale

understand and to control

Storage and handlingtechnologiesTransfer oftechnologicalinnovations amongdistribution systems

communication of data and information amongoperation u nits to allow integration within and among the different ph ases of the opera tive value chain


Global M arke

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Tab le I

Decisions and ActivitRelated to Strategies

a Global Ty


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U O P M development both of which are strongly linked to R&D activities 12 4 decentralization of the developm ent cen tre s can facilitate acc ess to know-how

and its development, as decentralization improves the flow of informationimproves contacts in border areas, and induces contacts with leaders in thfield[17]. The choice of suppliers in international markets makes it possible treduce costs and improve the quality of acquired materials. Finally, as far a

- . production is conc erned , the generation of econom ies of scale can be realize^ ^ eith er through the concen tration of all production activities o r through th

construction of a number of plants according to the logic of specializationProduction in decentralized plants can fevour he attainment of various objectives:low cost, learning economies, the establishment of a company in foreign marketthe introduction of new products, and technical leadership[18].

Th e co-ordination of decentralized units is fundamental in obtaining competitivadvantages. These advantages derive more from how the company manages th

various activities than from where these are located. As is shown in Table Ico-ordination among development centres allows an exchange and increase iknow-how, while co-ordination in the purchasing of materials makes it possiblto obtain economies of scale and create a base for long-term agreements withsuppliers. The transfer of experience can be considered as a form of co-ordinationthe ability to capitalize and transfer experience among the various units rep resentan important advantage for global companies in their competition with nationafirms. As can be seen in Table I the transfer of management and technologicaexperience is often recu rren t. Three types of transfer class can be recognized[19transfer of plants and reso urces, transfer of knowledge and ability, and transfeof tasks and responsibilities he transfer of just one of the se classes is ineffective.

Agreements and coalitions with other producers or with other companies whicare upstream or downstream on the operation value chain have the objectivof creating economies of scale and learning economies, allowing access to knowhow, reducing risks and modifying the competitive environment[20]. A highedegree of vertical integration involves fewer risks when it is realized througagreements and coalitions than it does when it is obtained through acquisitionor the utilization of internal resources. Through coalitions a company irepositioned more quickly than through internal development. The time whicis necessary to create the minimum threshold of experience within a firm s greaterthan the time which is required if a coalition is formed; this can occur in th

case of rapid technological innovation, for example in the computer field. Exampleof agreements and coalitions are given in the top four quadrants of Table 1.As far as aspects of internal organization are concerned, successful globa

competitors must have an organization capable of managing multidimensionaproblems. In this sense it becomes important to create a structure which icomplementary to the line structure, with task forces and committees whicrepresent a permanent and non-transitory supplementary decision-makinbody [19]. Even informal relations becom e fundamental when dealing with firmwhich operate on a global scale. Th e formal system s alone are not able to satisfthe enormous information needs which are necessary to co-ordinate such complex configuration.


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Th e roles and tasks of managemen t also change noticeably in th es e con texts.When several different cultural backgrounds are present within a company atany one time, management cannot assume that all values are common. Oftenthe shared understanding of the role of management becomes an instrumentof integration which is more powerful than formal structures and systems. Themanager therefore becomes a vehicle of integration. Internationalization andcosmopolitanism are the new characteristics which are required of this person.Th e task of the top manager is not that of submitting the activities of a nationalorganization to a cen tral control, but rather tha t of co-opting abilities and obtainingthe involvement of the national organizations; paradoxically, attention shifts fromcontrol of the strategic content to management of the organizational process.Evaluation and reward systems must favour the free exchange of informationand commitment to global objectives over the above local interests, so as toobtain a positive attitude to integration and thus favour a climate of continuousimprovement. The peculiar characteristics of the internal organization and ofthe role of management present some notable similarities in the various phasesof the operation value chain.

anagement SystemsThe adoption, in certain cases, of unified functioning and service standards inapplying managing m ethodologies can be of great value in reducing general co-ordination costs.

As far as the design and development phase is concerned, it is important tounderline how policies of product standarvjization make it possible to increasethe unit production volumes of codes raw materials and componen ts), thus

favouring the consolidation of co-makership[21]. Often standardization takes placewithin the wider framework of redefinition of the product, which requires itstransformation from local to global, that is, its redesign in order to meet theneeds of a world market. The identification of a segment of the global market,the redefinition of the product and the consolidation of the sources of supplyhave been indicated a s sttategic f ctors which, together with the already-mentionedenvironmental factors, can trigger off the globalization of an industry[3].

As far as th e production ph ase is con cern ed, an aggregate planning of plants,according to the global requirements of the distribution system, can be anadvantage, because it becomes possible to shift production from one plant toanother, to improve the development of plants and to optimize fluctuation inthe rate of change [18].

Recent m ethodologies for cost accounting and for performance measurement,including response time, are important in all the phases.

TechnologiesOne of the main competitive advantages derives from the transfer of advancedinnovations in process technolog ies, information technology, and p roduct, raw-material and components technologies. Similarities of products and processeswithin the company help the transfer of technological improvem ents. High-techfirms, in which intangible ass ets are fundamental, are favoured in this pro ces sas transfer costs are very low[18].


Global Marke

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JOPM As far as design is con cerned , CAD technologies no t only make it possible12,4 to implement product-standardization policies, bu t when used together wit

communication technologies, they also make it possible to design th e producttogether with th e suppliers.

New automation technologies m ake it po ssible to obtain econom ies of scalewhich utilize learning processes.

In th e distribution context th e regulation of control over communicatio1 ^ technologies, toge ther with deregulation in transport, favours th e creation of

alliances [22].Modem information and communication systems allow greater integration a

phases of the operation value chain, and make decentralized units efficient[23

onclusionsIn many indu stries th ere is a clear tende ncy towards globalization. I t is believed

that this phenomenon will grow a s it is aided by the progressive reduction inbarriers between countries an d differences b etw een c on sum ers. M arkglobalization, on the o ther hand, also dep end s on the behaviour of com panFor example, Japanese prod ucers have given a significant impulse in this direby redefiriing products on a world basis. To obtain co m petitive advantages inglobal industries, all produ cers, including tho se in othe r cou ntries, m ust be into account. Market integration, both in Europe and in the world as a whole,means that choices in design, purchasing, an d assignmen t of production anddistribution tasks, must all b e assum ed an d co-ordinated on a global scale togain com petitive advantages. In the model which has been prese nte d we hatried to underline th e most significant opportunities an d decisions in therealization of strategie s of a global typ e with reference to ope rations. C om paredto domestic o r traditional intemaiization strategies, three paradigms in globalstrategies seem to emerge as far as company performance an d behaviour areconcemed:

(1) Cost and time comp ressionThe reduction in costs in the whole operachain and th e com pression of time make it po ssible to gain c om petitiveadvantages in price, product innovation an d service. Th e cost an d tim ecom pression which can be obtained by adopting a global strategy is grthan that which can be obtained by adopting a domestic one. Indeedin global strategies it is possible to take greater advantage of thepurchasing, production an d distribution econ om ies of scale by workingon large manufacturing volumes, made possible through being prein a large number of m arkets. It is also possible to configure and co-ordinate th e company structure on an intemational basis, utilizing t h emany differences (e.g . in cost and in access to know-how) among t h evarious countries. In the previous paragraph som e specific dec isions onorganization were discussed. Factors which play an important part incom pressing time are: company organization, m anagemen t as a strategicresource in integrating activities along th e value chain, the u se ofmanagement systems which help to make th e operation flow le an and th e use of information techn ologies [24].


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(2) Agreements and coalitions. Agreements and coalitions are much moreimportant in the case of globalization than in the ca se of other strateg ies.They are used for several reasons: to reduce innovation and know-howacquisition times, to reduce risks linked to research and entry into newmarkets, and to create better economies of scale. In Table I we haveemphasized num erous cas es in which agreem ents and coalitions in variousphases of the operation value chain play an important role in obtainingsources of competitive advantage.

(3) Transfer. This is another fundamental paradigm in global strategy andits use is an important source of advantage. As was see n above, transfermust be identified in all phases of the operation chain. The transfer ofknow-how, experience/learning in production, managerial skills andinvisible ass et s [25] are fundamental elem ents for competitive advantageand are m ore easily obtainable by firms operating with global strateg ies.

In conclusion, the proposed model can be useful in identifying the decisionsto be taken and the actions to be carried out in order to make the changesrequired by global strategy. The change is great, but the chaUenge is significantfor many European firms which are, or soon will be, competing in the globalmarket.


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R e f e r e n c e s1. Cerru ti, J.L. and Holtzman, J., Bu sin ess Strategy in the New European Landscape ,

The Jouma i of Business Strategy, 1990, pp. 18-23.2. Ohmae, K., TriadPower: The Coming Shape of Global C ompetition, Th e Free Press, New

York, 1985.3. Cvar, M.R ., Ca se Studies in Global Industries : Patterns of Succ ess and Failure , in

Porter, M.E. (Ed.), Comp etition in Global Industries, Harvard Business School Press,Boston, MA, 1986, pp. 483-515.

4. Porter, M.E ., Com petition in Global Industries : A Conceptual Fram ework , in Porter,M.E. (Ed.) , Competition in Global Industries, Harvard Business School Press, Boston,MA, 1986.

5. Collins, R.S., Schmenn er, R.W. and Whybark, D .C, Pan European Manufacturing:Following the Yellow Brick Road to 1992 , Business Horizons, Vol. 33 No. 3,1991, pp. 15-23.

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7. Schonberger, R.J., World class Manufacturing: The Lessons of Simplicity Applied TheFree Press, New York, 1986.8. Hayes, R.H., W heelwright, S.C. and Clark, K. B., Dynamic Manufacturing, The Free

Press, New York, 1988.9. Porter, M. E., Competitive Advantage: Creating and Sustaining Superior Performance, The

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11. Ferdow s, K., M iller, J.G., Nakane, J. and Vollmann, T.E ., Evolving Global ManufacturingStrateg ies: Projections into the 1990s , Intemational Joumai of Operations ProductionManagement, Vol. 6 No. 4, 1986, pp. 6-16.


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OPM 12. Ward, P T , Leon g, G.K. and Snyder, D.L., M anufacturing Strateg y: An OveIO 4 Current Proce ss and Content M odels , in Ett l ie, J .E . , Burstein, M.C. and Feig

' A. (Eds), Manufacturing Strategy, Kluwer Academic Pub lishers, Bo ston, MA , 113. Hill, T.J., M anufacturing Strategy: The Strategic Man agement of the Ma nufac

Function, Macmillan, London, 1985.14. Cha se, R.B. and Garvin, D.A., T h e Service Facto ry , Harvard Business Review, July-

August 1989, pp. 61-9.1 8 15. Skinner, W., Manufacturing: The Form idable Competitive Weapon, John W iley & Son ^ . New York, 1985.

16. Fine, C.H. and Hax, A.C., M anufacturing Strateg y: A Methodology and an IlluInterfaces, Vol. 15 No. 6, 1985, pp. 28-46.

17. Galli, R., Alia ricerca di nuovi as se tti , L era delle alleame, Petrini Editore, Torino, 1918. Flaherty, M.T., Coordinating Intem ational Manufacturing and Techn ology' ' , i

M .E. (Ed.), C ompeti tion in Global Industries, Harvard Business School Press , BosMA, 1986.

19. Ba rtlett, C.A., Building and Managing the Transnational: Th e New OrganChallenge , in Porter, M.E. (Ed.), C ompeti tion in Global Industries, Harvard BusineSchool Press, Boston, MA, 1986, pp. 367-401.

20. Porter, M .E. and Fuller, M .B., Coalitions and Global Strategy , in Porter, M .ECompetition in Global Industries, Harvard Business School Press, Boston, MA,

21. De Toni, A. and Zipponi, L., Pro duc t Standardisation and Proc ess Similitude , IntegratedManufacturing Systems, Vol. 2 No. 1, 1991, pp. 23-9.

22 . Bowersox, D J., 'The Strategic Benefits of Logistic Alliances'', Harvard Business ReviewJuly-August 1990, pp. 36-45.

23 . Rock art, J.F. and Sho rt, J.E ., IT and the Networked O rganization: TowardEffective Ma nageme nt of Interde pen den ce' ' , W orking Paper No. 200, MIT Sloan Schoo

of Management, Cambridge, MA, 1986.24. Filippini, R., L a com petizione sul tem po , Sviluppo e Organizzazione, No. 123, 1991

pp. 17-28.25. Itami, H ., Mo bilizing Invisible Assets, Harvard University P res s, C ambridge, M A,


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Lectura No. 1 Operaciones y Mercado Global

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