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St. Paul

Prat, F. (1911) St. Paul. The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume XI. e! "or#$ %o&ert

'ppleton Company.

I. P%EII'%" *+ESTIS

'. 'pocryphal 'ct- o St. Paul

Professor Schmidt has published a photographic copy, a transcription, a German

translation, and a commentary of a Coptic papyrus composed of about 2000

fragments, which he has classified, juxtaposed, and deciphered at a cost of

infinite labour (!cta Pauli aus der "eidelberger #optischen Papyrushandschrift

$r% &, 'eipig, &)0*, and +usate etc%, 'eipig, &)0-% .ost critics,

whether Catholic (/uchesne, ardenhewer, 1hrhard etc%-, or Protestant (+ahn,"arnac#, Corssen etc%-, beliee that these are real !cta Pauli, although the text

edited by Schmidt, with its ery numerous gaps, represents but a small portion of

the original wor#% 3his discoery modified the generally

accepted ideas concerning the origin, contents, and alue of

these apocryphal !cts, and warrants the conclusion that three ancient

compositions which hae reached us formed an integral part of the !cta Pauli

i% the !cta Pauli et 3heclae, of which the best edition is that of 'ipsius,

(!cta !postolorum apocrypha, 'eipig, &4)&, 25672-, a .artyrium Pauli

presered in Gree# and a fragment of which also exists in 'atin (op% cit%, &0*6&7-,

and a letter from the Corinthians to Paul with the latter8s reply, the !rmenian textof which was presered (cf% +ahn, Gesch% des neutest% 9anons, ::, )26;&&-,

and the 'atin discoered by erger in &4)& (d% "arnac#, /ie apo#ryphen riefe

des Paulus an die 'aodicener und 9orinther, onn, &)0-% <ith great sagacity

+ahn anticipated this result with regard to the last two documents, and the

manner in which St% =erome spea#s of the periodoi Pauli et 3heclae (/e iris ill%,

ii- might hae permitted the same surmise with regard to the first%

!nother conse>uence of Schmidt8s discoery is no less

interesting% 'ipsius maintained 66 and this was hitherto the common opinion 66

that besides the Catholic !cts there formerly existed Gnostic !cts of Paul, but now eerything tends to proe that the latter neer existed% :n

fact ?rigen >uotes the !cta Pauli twice as an estimable writing (:n =oann%,

xx, &2@ /e princip%, ::, i, 5-@ 1usebius ("ist% eccl%, :::, iii, @ AAB, *- places

them among the boo#s in dispute, such as the Shepherd of "ermas,

the !pocalypse of Peter, the 1pistle of arnabas, and the 3eaching of the

!postles% 3he stichometry of the Codex Claromontanus (photograph in



Bigouroux, /ict% de la ible, ::, &*7- places them after the canonical

boo#s% 3ertullian and St% =erome, while pointing out the legendary character of

this writing, do not attac# its orthodoxy% 3he precise purpose of St% Paul8s

correspondence with the Corinthians which formed part of the !cts, was to

oppose the Gnostics, Simon and Cleobius% ut there is no reason to admit the

existence of heretical !cts which hae since been hopelessly lost, for all thedetails gien by ancient authors are erified in the !cts which hae been

recoered or tally well with them%

3he following is the explanation of the confusion

3he .anicheans and Priscillianists had circulated a collection of

fie apocryphal !cts, four of which were tainted with heresy, and the fifth were

the !cts of Paul% 3he !cta Pauli, owing to this unfortunate association, are

suspected of heterodoxy by the more recent authors such as Philastrius (/e

haeres%, 44- and Photius (Cod%, &&*-% 3ertullian (/e baptismo, &7- and St%

=erome (/e ir% ill%, ii- denounce the fabulous character of the apocryphal !ctsof Paul, and this seere judgment is amply confirmed by the examination of the

fragments published by Schmidt% :t is a purely imaginatie wor# in which

improbability ies with absurdity% 3he author, who was ac>uainted with

the canonical !cts of the !postles, locates the scene in the places really isited

by St% Paul

(!ntioch, :conium, .yra, Perge, Sidon, 3yre, 1phesus,Corinth, Philippi, Dome-,

but for the rest he gies his fancy free rein% "is chronology is absolutely

impossible% ?f the sixty6fie persons he names, ery few are #nown and the part

played by these is irreconcilable with the statements of the canonical !cts%

riefly, if the canonical !cts are true the apocryphal !cts are false% 3his,

howeer, does not imply that none of the details hae historical foundation, but

they must be confirmed by an independent authority%

/. Chronolo0y

:f we admit according to the almost unanimous opinion of exegetes that !cts

& and Galatians 2&6&0, relate to the same fact it will be seen that an interal of

seenteen years E or at least sixteen, counting incomplete years as accomplished

E elapsed between the conersion of Paul and the !postolic council, for Paul

isited =erusalem three years after his conersion (Galatians &&4- and returned

after fourteen years for the meeting held with regard to legal obserances

(Galatians 2& Epeita dia dekatessaron eton-% :t is true that some authors

include the three years prior to the first isit in the total of fourteen, but this

explanation seems forced% ?n the other hand, twele or thirteen years elapsed

between the !postolic council and the end of the captiity, for the captiity lasted

nearly fie years (more than two years at Caesarea, !cts 2*27, six months



traelling, including the sojourn at .alta, and two years at Dome, !cts 2450-@

the third mission lasted not less than four years and a half (three of which were

spent at 1phesus, !cts 205&, and one between the departure from 1phesus and

the arrial at =erusalem, & Corinthians &;4@ !cts 20&;, and six months at the

ery least for the journey to Galatia, !cts &425-@ while the second mission lasted

not less than three years (eighteen months for Corinth, !cts &4&&, and theremainder for the eangeliation of Galatia, .acedonia, and !thens, !cts &5;6

&75*-% 3hus from the conersion to the end of the first captiity we hae a total

of about twenty6nine years%

$ow if we could find a fixed point that is a synchronism between a fact in the life

of Paul and a certainly dated eent in profane history, it would be easy to

reconstruct the Pauline chronology% Fnfortunately this much wished6for mar# has

not yet been indicated with certainty, despite the numerous attempts made by

scholars, especially in recent times% :t is of interest to note een the abortie

attempts, because the discoery of aninscription or of a coin may any daytransform an approximate date into an absolutely fixed point% 3hese are

• the meeting of Paul with Sergius Paulus, Proconsul of Cyprus, about the

year *; (!cts &57-

• the meeting at Corinth with !>uila and Priscilla, who had been expelled

from Dome, about & (!cts &42-

• the meeting with Gallio, Proconsul of !chaia, about 5 (!cts &4&2-

• the address of Paul before the Goernor elix and his wife /rusilla about

4 (!cts 2*2*-%

!ll these eents, as far as they may be assigned approximate dates, agree with

the !postle8s general chronology but gie no precise results% 3hree synchronisms,

howeer, appear to afford a firmer basis

(1) The occupation of Damascus by the ethnarch of King Aretas and the escape

of the Apostle three years after his conversion ( 2 orinthians 11!"2#""$ Acts

%!2"#2& )' ## /amascene coins bearing the effigy of 3iberius to the year 5* are

extant, proing that at that time the city belonged to the Domans% :t is impossible

to assume that !retas had receied it as a gift from 3iberius, for the latter,

especially in his last years, was hostile to the 9ing of the $abataeanswhom Bitellius, Goernor of Syria, was ordered to attac# (=oseph%, !nt%,

AB:::, , &5-@ neither could !retas hae possessed himself of it by force for,

besides the unli#elihood of a direct aggression against the Domans, the

expedition of Bitellius was at first directed not against /amascus but

against Petra% :t has therefore been somewhat plausibly conjectured that Caligula,

subject as he was to such whims, had ceded it to him at the time of his accession



(&0 .arch, 57-% !s a matter of fact nothing is #nown of

imperial coins of /amascus dating from either Caligula or Claudius% !ccording

to this hypothesis St% Paul8s conersionwas not prior to 5*, nor his escape

from /amascus and his first isit to =erusalem, to 57%

(2) Death of Agrippa famine in udea mission of *auland +arnabas to erusalem to bring thither the alms from the hurch of

Antioch ( Acts 11!2, #12!2- )' ## !grippa died shortly after the Pasch (!cts

&25,&2&)-, when he was celebrating in Caesarea solemn festials in honour of

Claudius8s recent return from ritain, in the third year of his reign, which had

begun in *& (=osephus, !nt%, A:A, ii, 2-% 3hese combined facts bring us to the

year **, and it is precisely in this year that ?rosius ("ist%, ii, ;- places the great

famine which desolated =udea% =osephus mentions it somewhat later, under

the procurator 3iberius !lexander (about *;-, but it is well #nown that the whole

of Claudius8s reign was characteried by poor harests (Suet%, Claudius, &4-

and a general famine was usually preceded by a more or less prolonged period ofscarcity% :t is also possible that the relief sent in anticipation of the

famine foretold by !gabus (!cts &&2462)- preceded the appearance of the

scourge or coincided with the first symptoms of want% ?n the other hand, the

synchronism between the death of "erod and the mission of Paul can only be

approximate, for although the two facts are closely connected in the !cts, the

account of the death of !grippa may be a mere episode intended to shed light on

the situation of the Church of =erusalem about the time of the arrial of the

delegates from !ntioch% :n any case, * seems to be the most satisfactory date%

(") .eplacing of /eli0 by /estus to years after the arrest to *aul ( Acts 2!2, )'

## Fntil recently chronologists commonly fixed this important eent, in the year

;06;&% "arnac#, 0% "oltmann, and .cGiffert suggest adancing it four or fie

years for the following reasons

(&- :n his Chronicon, 1usebius places the arrial of estus in the second year

of $ero (?ctober, 6?ctober, ;, or if, as is asserted, 1usebius ma#es the reigns

of the emperors begin with the September after their accession, September, ;6

September, 7-% ut it must be borne in mind that the chroniclers being

always obliged to gie definite dates, were li#ely to guess at them, and it may be

that 1usebius for lac# of definite information diided into two e>ual parts the

entire duration of the goernment of elix and estus%

(2- =osephus states (!nt%, AA, iii, )- that elix haing been recalled

to Dome and accused by the =ews to $ero, owed his safety only to his brother

Pallas who was then high in faour% ut according to 3acitus (!nnal%, A:::, xi6

x-, Pallas was dismissed shortly before ritannicus celebrated his fourteenth



anniersary, that is, in =anuary, % 3hese two statements are irreconcilable@ for if

Pallas was dismissed three months after $ero8saccession (&5 ?ctober, *- he

could not hae been at the summit of his power when his brother elix, recalled

from Palestine at the command of $ero about the time of Pentecost, arried

at Dome% Possibly Pallas, who after his dismissal retained his wealth and a

portion of his influence, since he stipulated that his administration should not besubjected to an inestigation, was able to be of assistance to his brother until ;2

when $ero, to obtain possession of his goods, $ero had him poisoned%

3he adocates of a later date bring forward the following reasons

(&- 3wo years before the recall of elix, Paul reminded him that he had been for

many years judge oer the =ewish nation (!cts 2*&0627-% 3his can scarcely mean

less than six or seen years, and as, according to =osephuswho agrees with

3acitus, elix was named procurator of =udea in 2, the beginning of the captiity

would fall in 4 or )% :t is true that the argument loses its strength if it beadmitted with seeral critics that elix before being procurator had held a

subordinate position in Palestine%

(2- =osephus (!nt%, AA, iii, 64- places under $ero eerything that pertains to

the goernment of elix, and although this long series of eents does not

necessarily re>uire many years it is eident that =osephus regarded the

goernment of elix as coinciding for the most part with the reign of $ero, which

began on &5 ?ctober, *%

:n fixing as follows the chief dates in the life of Paul all certain or probable dataseem to be satisfactorily ta#en into account Conersion, 5@ first isit

to =erusalem, 57@ sojourn at 3arsus, 576*5@ apostolate at !ntioch, *56**@ second

isit to =erusalem, ** or *@ first mission, *6*)@ third isit to =erusalem, *) or

0@ second mission, 065@ (& and 2 3hessalonians-, 2@ fourth isit to =erusalem,

5@ third mission, 567@ (& and 2 Corinthians@Galatians-, ;@ (Domans-, 7@ fifth

isit to =erusalem, arrest, 7@ arrial of estus, departure for Dome, )@ captiity

at Dome, ;06;2@ (Philemon@ Colossians@ 1phesians@ Philippians-, ;&@ second

period of actiity, ;26;;@ (& 3imothy@ 3itus-, second arrest, ;;@ (2

3imothy-, martyrdom, ;7% (See 3urner, Chronology of the $ew 3estament in

"astings, /ict% of the ible "Hnic#e, /ie Chronologie des 'ebens des !p%Paulus, 'eipig, &)05%

II. IFE ' 2%3 F P'+

'. /irth and Education



rom St% Paul himself we #now that he was born at 3arsus in Cilicia (!cts

2&5)-, of a father who was a Doman citien (!cts 222;624@ cf% &;57-, of

a family in which piety was hereditary (2 3imothy &5- and which was much

attached to Pharisaic traditions and obserances (Philippians 56;-%

St% =erome relates, on what ground is not #nown, that his parents were naties ofGischala, a small town of Galilee and that they brought him to 3arsus when

Gischala was captured by the Domans (/e ir% ill%, @ :n epist% ad Phil%, 25-%

3his last detail is certainly an anachronism, but the Galilean origin of

the family is not at all improbable%

!s he belonged to the tribe of enjamin he was gien at the time of

his circumcision the name of Saul, which must hae been common in that tribe in

memory of the first #ing of the =ews (Philippians 5-% !s a Doman citien he

also bore the 'atin name of Paul% :t was >uite usual for the =ews of that time to

hae two names, one "ebrew, the other 'atin or Gree#, between which there wasoften a certain assonance and which were joined together exactly in the manner

made use of by St% 'u#e (!cts &5) 3aulos ho kai *aulos-% See on this point

/eissmann, ible Studies (1dinburgh, &)05, 5&56&7%- :t was natural that in

inaugurating his apostolate among the Gentiles Paul should hae adopted his

Doman name, especially as the name Saul had a ludicrous meaning in Gree#%

!s eery respectable =ew had to teach his son a trade, young Saul learned how to

ma#e tents (!cts &45- or rather to ma#e the mohair of which tents were made

(cf% 'ewin, 'ife of St% Paul, :, 'ondon, &47*, 46)-% "e was still ery young

when sent to =erusalem to receie his education at the school of Gamaliel (!cts225-% Possibly some of his family resided in the holy city@ later there is mention

of the presence of one of his sisters whose son saed his life (!cts 25&;-%

rom that time it is absolutely impossible to follow him until he ta#es an actie

part in the martyrdom of St% Stephen (!cts 746;0@ 2220-% "e was then

>ualified as a young man (neanias-, but this was ery elastic appellation and

might be applied to a man between twenty and forty%

/. Con4er-ion and early a&our-

<e read in the !cts of the !postles three accounts of the conersion of St% Paul

()&6&)@ 22562&@ 2;)625- presenting some slight differences, which it is not

difficult to harmonie and which do not affect the basis of the narratie, which is

perfectly identical in substance% See =% .assie, 3he Conersion of St% Paul in

3he 1xpositor, 5rd series, A, &44), 2*&6;2% Sabatier, agreeing with most

independent critics, has well said ('8!potre Paul, &4);, *2-



bloc#>uoteI3hese differences cannot in any way alter the reality of the fact@ their

bearing on the narratie is extremely remote@ they do not deal een with the

circumstances accompanying the miracle but with the subjectie impressions

which the companions of St% Paul receied of these circumstances% % % % 3o base a

denial of the historical character of the account upon these differences would

seem therefore a iolent and arbitrary proceeding%

!ll efforts hitherto made to explain without a miracle the apparition of =esus to

Paul hae failed% $aturalistic explanations are reduced to two either

Paul belieed that he really saw Christ, but was the ictim of an hallucination, or

he belieed that he saw "im only through a spiritual ision, which tradition,

recorded in the !cts of the !postles, later erroneously materialied% Denan

explained eerything by hallucination due to disease brought on by a

combination of moral causes such as doubt, remorse, fear , and of physical causes

such as ophthalmia, fatigue, feer, the sudden transition from the torrid desert to

the fresh gardens of /amascus, perhaps a sudden storm accompanied bylightning and thunder% !ll this combined, according to Denan8s theory, to produce

a cerebral commotion, a passing delirium which Paul too# in good faith for

an apparition of the risen Christ%

3he other partisans of a natural explanation while aoiding the

word hallucination, eentually fall bac# on the system of Denan which they

merely endeaour to render a little less complicated% 3hus "olsten, for whom

theision of Christ is only the conclusion of a series of syllogisms by which Paul

persuaded himself that Christ was truly risen% So also Pfleiderer, who

howeer, causes the imagination to play a more influential part

!n excitable, nerous temperament@ a soul that had been iolently agitated and

torn by the most terrible doubts@ a most iid phantasy, occupied with the awful

scenes of persecution on the one hand and on the other by the ideal image of the

celestial Christ@ in addition the nearness of /amascus with the urgency of a

decision, the lonely stillness, the scorching and blinding heat of the desert 66 in

fact eerything combined to produce one of those ecstatic states in which

the soul beliees that it sees those images and conceptions which iolently agitate

it as if they were phenomena proceeding from the outward world ( 4ectures on

the influence of the Apostle *aul on the development of hristianity, &4)7, *5-%

<e hae >uoted Pfleiderer8s words at length because his psychological

explanation is considered the best eer deised% :t will readily be seen that it is

insufficient and as much opposed to the account in the !cts as to the express

testimony of St% Paul himself%



• Paul is certain of haing seen Christ as did the other !postles (&

Corinthians )&-@ he declares that Christ appeared to him (& Corinthians

&4- as "e appeared to Peter , to =ames, to the 3wele, after

"isDesurrection%

• "e #nows that his conersion is not the fruit of his reasoning or thoughts,

but an unforeseen, sudden, startling change, due to all6powerful grace(Galatians &&26&@ & Corinthians &&0-%

• "e is wrongly credited with doubts, perplexities, fears, remorse, before

his conersion% "e was halted by Christ when his fury was at its height

(!cts )&62-@ it was through eal that

he persecuted the Church(Philippians 5;-, and he obtained mercy because

he had acted ignorantly in unbelief (& 3imothy &&5-%

!ll explanations, psychological or otherwise, are worthless in face of these

definite assertions, for all suppose that it was Paul8s faith in Christ which

engendered the ision, whereas according to the concordant testimony ofthe !cts and the 1pistles it was the actual ision of Christ which

engendered faith%

!fter his conersion, his baptism, and his miraculous cure Paul set about

preaching to the =ews (!cts )&)620-% "e afterwards withdrew to !rabia 66

probably to the region south of /amascus (Galatians &&7-, doubtless less to

preach than to meditate on the Scriptures% ?n his return to /amascus the

intrigues of the =ews forced him to flee by night (2 Corinthians &&52655@ !cts

)2562-% "e went to =erusalem to see Peter (Galatians &&4-, but remained only

fifteen days, for the snares of the Gree#s threatened his life% "e then left

for 3arsus and is lost to sight for fie or six years (!cts )2)650@ Galatians

&2&-% arnabas went in search of him and brought him to !ntioch where for a

year they wor#ed together and their apostolate was most fruitful (!cts &&262;-%

3ogether also they were sent to =erusalem to carry alms to the brethren on the

occasion of the famine predicted by!gabus (!cts &&27650-% 3hey do not seem to

hae found the !postles there@ these had been scattered by

the persecution of "erod%

C. 'po-tolic Career o Paul

3his period of twele years (*67- was the most actie and fruitful of his life% :t

comprises three great !postolic expeditions of which !ntioch was in each

instance the starting6point and which inariably ended in a isit to=erusalem%

(1) /irst mission (Acts 1"!1#1!2,)



Set apart by command of the "oly Ghost for the special eangeliation of

the Gentiles, arnabas and Saul embar# for Cyprus, preach in the synagogue of

Salamina, cross the island from east to west doubtless following the southern

coast, and reach Paphos, the residence of the proconsul Sergius Paulus, where a

sudden change ta#es place% !fter the conersion of the Doman proconsul, Saul,

suddenly become Paul, is inariably mentioned before arnabas by St% 'u#e andmanifestly assumes the leadership of the mission which arnabas has hitherto

directed%

3he results of this change are soon eident% Paul, doubtless concluding

that Cyprus, the natural dependency of Syria and Cilicia, would embrace

the faith of Christ when these two countries should be Christian, chose !sia

.inor as the field of his apostolate and sailed for Perge in Pamphylia, eighth

miles aboe the mouth of the Cestrus% :t was then that =ohn .ar#, cousin

of arnabas, dismayed perhaps by the daring projects of the !postle, abandoned

the expedition and returned to =erusalem, while Paul and arnabas labouredalone among the rough mountains of Pisidia, which were infested by brigands

and crossed by frightful precipices% 3heir destination was the Doman colony

of !ntioch, situated a seen day8s journey from Perge% "ere Paul spo#e on the

ocation of :srael and the proidential sending of the .essias, a discourse

which St% 'u#e reproduces in substance as an example of his preaching in

the synagogues (!cts &5&;6*&-% 3he sojourn of the two missionaries

in !ntioch was long enough for the word of the 'ord to be published throughout

the whole country (!cts &5*)-%

<hen by their intrigues the =ews had obtained against them a decree of

banishment, they went to :conium, three or four days distant, where they met

with the same persecution from the =ews and the same eager welcome from

the Gentiles% 3he hostility of the =ews forced them to ta#e refuge in the Doman

colony of 'ystra, eighteen miles distant% "ere

the =ews from !ntioch and :conium laid snares for Paul and haing stoned him

left him for dead, but again he succeeded in escaping and this time sought refuge

in /erbe, situated about forty miles away on the frontier of the Proince of

Galatia% 3heir circuit completed, the missionaries retraced their steps in order to

isit their neophytes, ordained priests in each Church founded by them at such

great cost, and thus reached Perge where they halted to preach the Gospel,

perhaps while awaiting an opportunity to embar# for !ttalia, a port twele miles

distant% ?n their return to !ntioch in Syria after an absence of at least three years,

they were receied with transports of joy and than#sgiing, for God had opened

the door of faith to the Gentiles%



3he problem of the status of the Gentiles in the Church now made itself felt with

all its acuteness% Some =udeo6Christians coming down from =erusalem claimed

that the Gentiles must be submitted to circumcision and treated as

the =ews treated proselytes% !gainst this Paul and arnabas protested and it was

decided that a meeting should be held at =erusalem in order to sole the >uestion%

!t this assembly Paul and arnabas represented the communityof !ntioch% Peter pleaded the freedom of the Gentiles@ =ames upheld him, at the

same time demanding that the Gentiles should abstain from certain things which

especially shoc#ed the =ews%

:t was decided, first, that the Gentiles were exempt from the .osaic law%

Secondly, that those of Syria and Cilicia must abstain from

things sacrificed to idols, from blood, from things strangled, and from

fornication% 3hirdly, that this injunction was laid upon them, not in irtue of

the .osaic law, but in the name of the "oly Ghost% 3his meant the complete

triumph of Paul8s ideas%

3he restriction imposed on the Gentile conerts of Syria and Cilicia did not

concern his Churches, and 3itus, his companion, was not compelled to

be circumcised, despite the loud protests of the =udaiers (Galatians 256*-% "ere

it is to be assumed that Galatians 2 and !cts & relate to the same fact, for the

actors are the same, Paul and arnabas on the one hand, Peter and =ames on the

other@ the discussion is the same, the >uestion of thecircumcision of the Gentiles@

the scenes are the same, !ntioch and =erusalem@ the date is the same, about !%/%

0@ and the result is the same, Paul8s ictory oer the =udaiers%

"oweer, the decision of =erusalem did not do away with all difficulties% 3he

>uestion did not concern only the Gentiles, and while exempting them from

the .osaic law, it was not declared that it would not hae been

counted meritorious and more perfect for them to obsere it, as

the decree seemed to li#en them to =ewish proselytes of the second class%

urthermore the =udeo6Christians, not haing been included in the erdict, were

still free to consider themseles bound to the obserance of the law% 3his was the

origin of the dispute which shortly afterwards arose

at !ntioch between Peter and Paul% 3he latter taught openly that the law was

abolished for the =ews themseles% Peter did not thin# otherwise, but he

considered it wise to aoid giing offence to the =udaiers and to refrain from

eating with the Gentiles who did not obsere all the prescriptions of the law% !s

he thus morally influenced the Gentiles to lie as the =ews did, Paul demonstrated

to him that this dissimulation or opportuneness prepared the way for future

misunderstandings and conflicts and een then had regrettable conse>uences% "is



manner of relating this incident leaes no room for doubt that Peter was

persuaded by his arguments (Galatians 2&&620-%

(2) 3econd mission (Acts 1-!"&#15!22)

3he beginning of the second mission was mar#ed by a rather sharp discussionconcerning .ar# , whom St% Paul this time refused to accept as traelling

companion% Conse>uently arnabas set out with .ar# for Cyprus and Paul chose

Silas or Silanus, a Doman citien li#e himself, and an influential member of

the Church of =erusalem, and sent by it to !ntioch to delier the decrees of

the !postolic council% 3he two missionaries first went from!ntioch to 3arsus,

stopping on the way in order to promulgate the decisions of the Council

of =erusalem@ then they went from 3arsus to /erbe, through the Cilician Gates,

the defiles of 3arsus, and the plains of 'ycaonia% 3he isitation of

the Churches founded during his first mission passed without notable incidents

except the choice of 3imothy, whom the !postle while in 'ystra persuaded toaccompany him, and whom he caused to becircumcised in order to facilitate his

access to the =ews who were numerous in those places%

:t was probably at !ntioch of Pisidia, although the !cts do not mention that city,

that the itinerary of the mission was altered by the interention of the "oly

Ghost% Paul thought to enter the Proince of !sia by the alley of .eander which

separated it by only three day8s journey, but they passed through Phrygia and the

country of Galatia, haing been forbidden by the "oly Ghost to preach the word

of God in !sia (!cts &;;-% 3hese words (ten phrygian kai 6alatiken choran- are

ariously interpreted, according as we ta#e them to mean the Galatians of thenorth or of the south (see G!'!3:!$S-% <hateer the hypothesis, the

missionaries had to trael northwards in that portion of Galatia properly so called

of which Pessinonte was the capital, and the only >uestion is as to whether or not

they preached there% 3hey did not intend to do so, but as is #nown the

eangeliation of the Galatians was due to an accident, namely the illness of Paul

(Galatians *&5-@ this fits ery well for Galatians in the north% :n any case the

missionaries haing reached the upper part of .ysia (kata 7ysian-, attempted to

enter the rich Proince of ithynia, which lay before them, but the "oly

Ghost preented them (!cts &;7-% 3herefore, passing through .ysia without

stopping to preach ( parelthontes- they reached !lexandria of 3roas,

where God8s will was again made #nown to them in the ision of a .acedonian

who called them to come and help his country (!cts &;)6&0-%

Paul continued to follow on 1uropean soil the method of preaching he had

employed from the beginning% !s far as possible he concentrated his efforts in a

metropolis from which the aith would spread to cities of second ran# and to the



country districts% <hereer there was a synagogue he first too# his stand there

and preached to the =ews and proselytes who would consent to listen to him%

<hen the rupture with the =ews was irreparable, which always happened sooner

or later, he founded a new Church with his neophytes as a nucleus% "e remained

in the same city until persecution, generally aroused by the intrigues of the =ews,

forced him to retire% 3here were, howeer, ariations of this plan% !t Philippi,where there was no synagogue, the first preaching too# place in the uncoered

oratory called the proseuche, which the Gentiles made a reason for stirring up

the persecution% Paul and Silas, charged with disturbing public order, were beaten

with rods, imprisoned, and finally exiled% ut at 3hessalonica and erea, whither

they successiely repaired after leaing Philippi, things turned out almost as they

had planned%

3he apostolate of !thens was >uite exceptional% "ere there was no >uestion

of =ews or synagogue, Paul, contrary to his custom, was alone (& 3hessalonians

5&-, and he deliered before the areopagus a specially framed discourse, asynopsis of which has been presered by !cts &72565& as a specimen of its #ind%

"e seems to hae left the city of his own accord, without being forced to do so

by persecution% 3he mission to Corinth on the other hand may be considered

typical% Paul preached in the synagogue eery Sabbath day, and when

the iolent opposition of the =ews denied him entrance there he withdrew to an

adjoining house which was the propertyof a proselyte named 3itus =ustus% "e

carried on his apostolate in this manner for eighteen months, while

the =ews ainly stormed against him@ he was able to withstand them owing to the

impartial, if not actually faourable, attitude of the proconsul, Gallio% inally he

decided to go to =erusalem in fulfillment of a ow made perhaps in a moment of

danger% rom =erusalem, according to his custom, he returned to !ntioch% 3he

two 1pistles to the 3hessalonians were written during the early months of his

sojourn at Corinth% or occasion, circumstances, and analysis of these letters

see 3"1SS!'?$:!$S%

(") Third mission (Acts 15!2"#21!2&)

Paul8s destination in his third journey was obiously 1phesus% 3here !>uila and

Priscilla were awaiting him, he had promised the 1phesians to return and

eangelie them if it were the will of God (!cts &4&)62&-, and the"oly Ghost no

longer opposed his entry into !sia% 3herefore, after a brief rest at !ntioch he

went through the countries of Galatia and Phrygia (!cts &425- and passing

through the upper regions of Central !sia he reached 1phesus (&)&-% "is

method remained the same% :n order to earn his liing and not be a burden to

the faithful he toiled eery day for many hours at ma#ing tents, but this did not

preent him from preaching theGospel% !s usual he began with



the synagogue where he succeeded in remaining for three months% !t the end of

this time he taught eery day in a classroom placed at his disposal by a certain

3yrannus from the fifth hour to the tenth (from eleen in the morning till four

in the afternoon-, according to the interesting addition of the Codex

eae (!cts &))-% 3his lasted two years, so that all the inhabitants

of !sia, =ews and Gree#s, heard the word of the 'ord (!cts &)20-%

$aturally there were trials to be endured and obstacles to be oercome% Some of

these obstacles arose from the jealousy of the =ews, who ainly endeaoured to

imitate Paul8s exorcisms, others from the superstition of the pagans, which was

especially rife at 1phesus% So effectually did he triumph oer it, howeer, that

boo#s of superstition were burned to the alue of 0,000 pieces of siler (each

piece about a day8s wage-% 3his time the persecution was due to the Gentiles and

inspired by a motie of self6interest% 3he progress of Christianity haing ruined

the sale of the little facsimiles of the temple of /iana and statuettes of the

goddess, which deout pilgrims had been wont to purchase, a certain /emetrius, at the head of the guild of silersmiths, stirred up the crowd against Paul% 3he

scene which then transpired in the theatre is described by St% 'u#e with

memorable iidness and pathos (!cts &)256*0-% 3he !postle had to yield to the

storm% !fter a stay at 1phesus of two years and a half, perhaps more (!cts

205& trietian-, he departed for .acedonia and thence for Corinth, where he

spent the winter% :t was his intention in the following spring to go by sea

to =erusalem, doubtless for the Pasch@ but learning that the =ews had planned his

destruction, he did not wish, by going to sea, to afford them an opportunity to

attempt his life% 3herefore he returned by way of .acedonia%

$umerous disciples diided into two groups, accompanied him or awaited him

at 3roas% 3hese were Sopater of erea, !ristarchus and Secundus

of 3hessalonica, Gaius of /erbe, 3imothy, 3ychicus and 3rophimus of !sia, and

finally 'u#e, the historian of the !cts, who gies us minutely all the stages of the

oyage Philippi, 3roas, !ssos, .itylene, Chios, Samos,.iletus,

Cos, Dhodes, Patara, 3yre, Ptolemais, Caesarea, =erusalem%

3hree more remar#able facts should be noted in passing% !t 3roas Paul

resuscitated the young 1utychus, who had fallen from a third6story window while

Paul was preaching late into the night% !t .iletus he pronounced before the

ancients of 1phesus the touching farewell discourse which drew many tears (!cts

20&4654-% !t Caesarea the "oly Ghost by the mouth of !gabus, predicted his

coming arrest, but did not dissuade him from going to =erusalem%

St% Paul8s four great 1pistles were written during this third mission the first to the

Corinthians from 1phesus, about the time of the Pasch prior to his departure from

that city@ the second to the Corinthians from .acedonia, during the summer or



autumn of the same year@ that to the Domans from Corinth, in the following

spring@ the date of the 1pistle to the Galatians is disputed% ?n the many >uestions

occasioned by the despatch and the language of these letters, or the situation

assumed either on the side of the !postle or his correspondents, see 1P:S3'1S

3? 3"1 C?D:$3":!$S@ 1P:S3'1 3? 3"1 G!'!3:!$S@ 1P:S3'1 3? 3"1

D?.!$S%

. Capti4ity ('ct- 51$56758$1)

alsely accused by the =ews of haing brought Gentiles into the 3emple, Paul

was ill6treated by the populace and led in chains to the fortress !ntonia by the

tribune 'ysias% 3he latter haing learned that the =ews had conspired

treacherously to slay the prisoner sent him under strong escort to Caesarea, which

was the residence of the procurator elix% Paul had little difficulty in confounding

his accusers, but as he refused to purchase his liberty% elix #ept him in chains for

two years and een left him in prison in order to please the =ews, until the arrialof his successor, estus% 3he new goernor wished to send

the prisoner to =erusalem there to be tried in the presence of his accusers@ but

Paul, who was ac>uainted with the snares of his enemies, appealed to Caesar%

3henceforth his cause could be tried only at Dome% 3his first period of captiity

is characteried by fie discourses of the !postle 3he first was deliered

in "ebrew on the steps of the !ntonia before the threatening crowd@ herein Paul

relates his conersion and ocation to the !postolate, but he was interrupted by

the hostile shouts of the multitude (!cts 22&622-% :n the second, deliered the

next day, before the Sanhedrin assembled at the command of 'ysias,

the !postle s#illfully embroiled the Pharisees with the Sadducees and no

accusation could be brought% :n the third, Paul, answering his accuser 3ertullus in

the presence of the Goernor elix, ma#es #nown the facts which had been

distorted and proes his innocence (!cts 2*&062&-% 3he fourth discourse is

merely an explanatory summary of the Christian aith deliered before elix and

his wife /rusilla (!cts 2*2*62-% 3he fifth, pronounced before the Goernor

estus, 9ing !grippa, and his wife erenice, again relates the history of

Paul8s conersion, and is left unfinished owing to the sarcastic interruptions of

the goernor and the embarrassed attitude of the #ing (!cts 2;-%

3he journey of the captie Paul from Caesarea to Dome is described by St% 'u#e

with an exactness and iidness of colours which leae nothing to be desired% or

commentaries see Smith, Boyage and Shipwrec# of St% Paul (&4;;-@ Damsay,

St% Paul the 3raeller and Doman Citien ('ondon, &)04-% 3he centurion =ulius

had shipped Paul and his fellow6prisoners on a merchant essel on board

which 'u#e and !ristarchus were able to ta#e passage% !s the season was

adanced the oyage was slow and difficult% 3hey s#irted the coasts of Syria,



Cilicia, and Pamphylia% !t .yra in 'ycia the prisoners were transferred to

an !lexandrian essel bound for :taly, but the winds being persistently contrary a

place in Crete called Goodhaens was reached with great difficulty and Paul

adised that they should spend the winter there, but his adice was not followed,

and the essel drien by the tempest drifted aimlessly for fourteen whole days,

being finally wrec#ed on the coast of .alta% 3he three months during whichnaigation was considered most dangerous were spent there, but with the first

days of spring all haste was made to resume the oyage% Paul must hae

reached Dome some time in .arch% "e remained two whole years in his own

hired lodging % % % preaching the #ingdom of God and teaching the things which

concern the 'ord =esus Christ, with all confidence, without prohibition (!cts

245065&-% <ith these words the !cts of the !postles conclude%

3here is no doubt that Paul8s trial terminated in a sentence of ac>uittal, for

• the report of the Goernor estus was certainly faourable as well as thatof the centurion%

• 3he =ews seem to hae abandoned their charge since their co6religionists

in Dome were not informed of it (!cts 242&-%

• 3he course of the proceedings led Paul to hope for a release, of which he

sometimes spea#s as of a certainty (Philippians &2@ 22*@ Philemon 22-%

• 3he pastorals, if they are authentic, assume a period of actiity for Paul

subse>uent to his captiity% 3he same conclusion is drawn from the

hypothesis that they are not authentic, for all agree that the author was well

ac>uainted with the life of the !postle% :t is the almost unanimous opinion

that the so6called 1pistles of the captiity were sent from Dome% Some

authors hae attempted to proe that St% Paul wrote them during his

detention at Caesarea, but they hae found few to agree with them%

3he 1pistles to the Colossians, the 1phesians, and Philemon were

despatched together and by the same messenger, 3ychicus% :t is a matter of

controersy whether the 1pistle to the Philippians was prior or subse>uent

to these, and the >uestion has not been answered by decisie arguments

(see 1P:S3'1 3? 3"1 P":':PP:!$S@ 1P:S3'1 3? 3"1

1P"1S:!$S@ 1P:S3'1 3? 3"1 C?'?SS:!$S@ 1P:S3'1 3?

P":'1.?$-%

E. a-t "ear-

3his period is wrapped in deep obscurity for, lac#ing the account of

the !cts, we hae no guide sae an often uncertain tradition and the brief

references of the Pastoral epistles% Paul had long cherished the desire to go

to Spain (Domans &2*, 24- and there is no eidence that he was led to



change his plan% <hen towards the end of his captiity he announces his

coming to Philemon (22- and to the Philippians (22562*-, he does not

seem to regard this isit as immediate since he promises the Philippians to

send them a messenger as soon as he learns the issue of his trial@ he

therefore plans another journey before his return to the 1ast% inally, not to

mention the later testimony of St% Cyril of =erusalem, St% 1piphanius, St%=erome, St% Chrysostom, and 3heodoret, the well6#nown text of St%

Clement of Dome, the witness of the .uratorian Canon, and of the

!cta Pauli render probable Paul8s journey to Spain% :n any case he can

not hae remained there long, for he was in haste to reisit his Churches in

the 1ast% "e may hae returned from Spain through southern Gaul if it was

thither, as some athers hae thought, and not to Galatia,

that Crescens was sent later (2 3imothy *&0-% <e may readily beliee that

he afterwards #ept the promise made to his friend Philemon and that on

this occasion he isited the churches of the alley of 'ycus, 'aodicea,

Colossus, and "ierapolis%

3he itinerary now becomes ery uncertain, but the following facts seem

indicated by the Pastorals Paul remained in Crete exactly long enough to

found there new churches, the care and organiation of which he confided

to his fellow6wor#er 3itus (3itus &-% "e then went to 1phesus, and

besought 3imothy, who was already there, to remain until his return while

he proceeded to .acedonia (& 3imothy &5-% ?n this occasion he paid his

promised isit to the Philippians (Philippians 22*-, and naturally also saw

the 3hessalonians% 3he letter to 3itus and the irst 1pistle to

3imothy must date from this period@ they seem to hae been written about

the same time and shortly after the departure from 1phesus% 3he >uestion

is whether they were sent from .acedonia or, which seems more probable,

from Corinth% 3he !postle instructs 3itus to join him at $icopolis of

1pirus where he intends to spend the winter (3itus 5&2-% :n the following

spring he must hae carried out his plan to return to !sia (& 3imothy 5&*6

&-% "ere occurred the obscure episode of his arrest, which probably too#

place at 3roas@ this would explain his haing left with Carpus a cloa# and

boo#s which he needed (2 3imothy *&5-% "e was ta#en from there

to 1phesus, capital of the Proince of !sia, where he was deserted by allthose on whom he thought he could rely (2 3imothy &&-% eing sent

to Dome for trial he left 3rophimus sic# at .iletus, and 1rastus, another of

his companions, remained at Corinth, for what reason is not clear (2

3imothy *20-% <hen Paul wrote his Second 1pistle to

3imothy from Dome he felt that all human hope was lost (*;-@ he begs

his disciple to rejoin him as >uic#ly as possible, for he is alone with 'u#e%



<e do not #now if 3imothy was able to reach Dome before the death of

the !postle%

!ncient tradition ma#es it possible to establish the following points

o Paul suffered martyrdom near Dome at a place called !>uae Saliae(now 3re ontane-, somewhat east of the ?stian <ay, about two

miles from the splendid asilica of San Paolo fuori le mura which

mar#s his burial place%

o 3he martyrdom too# place towards the end of the reign of $ero, in

the twelfth year (St% 1piphanius-, the thirteenth (1uthalius-, or the

fourteenth (St% =erome-%

o !ccording to the most common opinion, Paul suffered in the same

year and on the same day as Peter @ seeral 'atin athers contend

that it was on the same day but not in the same year@ the

oldest witness, St% /ionysius the Corinthian, says only kata tonauton kairon, which may be translated at the same time or about

the same time%

o rom time immemorial the solemnity of the !postles Peter and Paul

has been celebrated on 2) =une, which is the anniersary either of

their death or of the translation of their relics%

ormerly the pope, after haing pontificated in the asilica of St% Peter ,

went with his attendants to that of St% Paul, but the distance between the

two basilicas (about fie miles- rendered the double ceremony too

exhausting, especially at that season of the year% 3hus arose the preailing custom of transferring to the next day (50 =une- the

Commemoration of St% Paul% 3he feast of the Conersion of St% Paul (2

=anuary- is of comparatiely recent origin% 3here is reason

for belieing that the day was first obsered to mar# the translation of

the relics of St% Paul at Dome, for so it appears in the

"ieronymian .artyrology% :t is un#nown to theGree# Church (/owden,

3he Church Jear and 9alendar, Cambridge, &)&0, ;)@ cf% /uchesne,

?rigines du culte chrKtien, Paris, &4)4, 2;672@ .cClure, Christian

<orship, 'ondon, &)05, 27764&-%

F. Phy-ical and oral Portrait o St. Paul

<e #now from 1usebius ("ist% eccl%, B::, &4- that een in his time there

existed paintings representing Christ and the !postles Peter and Paul%

Paul8s features hae been presered in three ancient monuments



o ! diptych which dates from not later than the fourth century

('ewin, 3he 'ife and 1pistles of St% Paul, &47*, frontispiece of

Bol% : and Bol% ::, 2&0-%

o ! large medallion found in the cemetery of /omitilla, representing

the !postles Peter and Paul (?p% cit%, ::, *&&-%

o ! glass dish in the ritish .useum, depicting thesame !postles (arrara, 'ife and <or# of St% Paul, &4)&, 4);-%

<e hae also the concordant descriptions of the !cta Pauli et 3heelae, of

Pseudo6'ucian in Philopatris, of .alalas (Chronogr%, x-, and

of $icephorus ("ist% eccl%, :::, 57-%

Paul was short of stature@ the Pseudo6Chrysostom calls him the man of

three cubits (anthropos tripechys-@ he was broad6shouldered, somewhat

bald, with slightly a>uiline nose, closely6#nit eyebrows, thic#,

greyish beard, fair complexion, and a pleasing and affable manner% "e wasafflicted with a malady which is difficult to diagnose (cf% .enies, St%

Paul8s :nfirmity in the 1xpository 3imes, =uly and Sept%, &)0*-, but

despite this painful and humiliating infirmity (2 Corinthians &276

)@ Galatians *&56&*- and although his bearing was not impressie (2

Corinthians &0&0-, Paul must undoubtedly hae been possessed of great

physical strength to hae sustained so long such superhuman labours (2

Corinthians &&2562)-% Pseudo6Chrysostom, :n princip% apostol% Petrum et

Paulum (in P% G%, ':A, *)*6)-, considers that he died at the age of sixty6

eight after haing sered the 'ord for thirty6fie years%

3he moral portrait is more difficult to draw because it is full of contrasts%

:ts elements will be found in 'ewin, op% cit%, ::, xi, *&065 (Paul8s Person

and Character-@ in arrar, op% cit%, !ppendix, 1xcursus :@ and especially

in $ewman, Sermons preached on Barious ?ccasions, ii, iii%

III. T:E;" F ST. P'+

'. Paul and Chri-t

3his >uestion has passed through two distinct phases% !ccording to the

principal followers of the 3Lbingen School, the !postle had but a

ague #nowledge of the life and teaching of the historical Christ and een

disdained such #nowledge as inferior and useless% 3heir only support is the

misinterpreted text 1t si cognoimus secundum carnem Christum, sed

nunc jam noimus (2 Corinthians &;-% 3he opposition noted in this text

is not between the historical and the glorified Christ, but between



the .essias such as the unbelieing =ews represented "im, such perhaps

as he was preached by certain =udaiers, and the .essias as "e manifested

"imself in "is death and Desurrection, as "e had been confessed by

the conerted Paul% :t is neither admissible nor probable that Paul would

be uninterested in the life and preaching of "im, <hom

heloed passionately, <hom he constantly held up for the imitation ofhis neophytes, and <hose spirit he boasted of haing% :t is incredible that

he would not >uestion on this subject eyewitnesses, such as arnabas,

Silas, or the future historians of Christ, Sts% .ar# and 'u#e, with whom he

was so long associated% Careful examination of this subject has brought

out the three following conclusions concerning which there is now general

agreement

o 3here are in St% Paul more allusions to the life and teachings

of Christ than would be suspected at first sight, and the casual way

in which they are made shows that the !postle #new more on thesubject than he had the occasion, or the wish to tell%

o 3hese allusions are more fre>uent in St% Paul than the Gospels%

o rom !postolic times there existed a catechesis, treating among

other things the life and teachings of Christ, and as

all neophytes were supposed to possess a copy it was

not necessary to refer thereto sae occasionally and in passing%

3he second phase of the >uestion is closely connected with the first% 3he

same theologians, who maintain that Paul was indifferent to the earthly life

and teaching of Christ, deliberately exaggerate his originality and

influence% !ccording to them Paul was the creator of theology, the founder

of the Church, the preacher of asceticism, the defender of

the sacraments and of the ecclesiastical system, the opponent of

the religion of loe and liberty which Christ came to announce to the

world% :f, to do him honour , he is called the second founder

of Christianity, this must be a degenerate and altered Christianity since it

was at least partially opposed to the primitie Christianity% Paul is thus

made responsible for eery antipathy to modern thought in

traditional Christianity%

3his is to a great extent the origin of the ac# to Christ moement, the

strange wanderings of which we are now witnessing% 3he chief reason for

returning to Christ is to escape Paul, the originator of dogma,

thetheologian of the faith% 3he cry +uruc# u =esu which has resounded

in Germany for thirty years, is inspired by the ulterior motie, 'os on

Paulus% 3he problem is <as Paul8s relation to Christ that of a disciple to



his masterM or was he absolutely autodidactic, independent ali#e of

the Gospel of Christ and the preaching of the 3weleM :t must be admitted

that most of the papers published shed little light on the subject% "oweer,

the discussions hae not been useless, for they hae shown that the most

characteristic Pauline doctrines, such as justifying faith, the redeeming

death of Christ, the uniersality of salation, are in accord with thewritings of the first !postles, from which they were deried% =ulicher in

particular has pointed out that Paul8s Christology, which is more exalted

than that of his companions in the apostolate, was neer the object of

controersy, and that Paul was not conscious of being singular in this

respect from the other heralds of the Gospel% Cf% .organ, ac# to Christ

in /ict% of Christ and the Gospels, :, ;&6;7@ Sanday, Paul, loc% cit%, ::,

44;6)2@ eine, =esus Christus und Paulus (&)02-@ Goguel, '8apNtre Paul

et =Ksus6Christ (Paris, &)0*-@ =ulicher, Paulus und =esus (&)07-%

/. The %oot Idea o St. Paul<- Theolo0y

Seeral modern authors consider that theodicy is at the base, centre, and

summit of Pauline theology% 3he apostle8s doctrine is theocentric, not in

reality anthropocentric% <hat is styled his 8metaphysics8 holds for Paul the

immediate and soereign fact of the unierse@ God, as he conceies "im,

is all in all to his reason and heart ali#e (indlay in "astings, /ict% of the

ible, :::, 7&4-% Steens begins the exposition of his Pauline 3heology

with a chapter entitled 3he doctrine of God% Sabatier ('8apotre Paul,

&4);, 2)7- also considers that the last word of Pauline theology is

God all in all, and he ma#es the idea of God the crown of

Paul8s theological edifice% ut these authors hae not reflected that though

the idea of God occupies so large a place in the teaching of the !postle,

whose thought is deeply religious li#e that of all his compatriots, it is not

characteristic of him, nor does it distinguish him from his companions in

the apostolate nor een from contemporary =ews%

.any modern Protestant theologians, especially among the more or less

faithful followers of the 3Lbingen School, maintain that Paul8s doctrine is

anthropocentric, that it starts from his conception of man8s inability to

fulfill the law of God without the help of grace to such an extent that he is

a slae of sin and must wage war against the flesh% ut if this be the

genesis of Paul8s idea it is astonishing that he enunciates it only in one

chapter (Domans 7-, the sense of which is controerted, so that if this

chapter had not been written, or it had been lost, we would hae no means

of recoering the #ey to his teaching% "oweer, most

moderntheologians now agree that St% Paul8s doctrine is Christocentric,



that it is at base a soteriology, not from a subjectie standpoint, according

to the ancient prejudice of the founders of Protestantism who

made justification by faith the >uintessence of Paulinism, but from the

objectie standpoint, embracing in a wide synthesis the person and wor#

of the Dedeemer % 3his may be proed empirically by the statement that

eerything in St% Paul conerges towards =esus Christ, so much so, thatabstracting from =esus Christ it becomes, whether ta#en collectiely or in

detail, absolutely incomprehensible% 3his is proed also by demonstrating

that what Paul calls his Gospel is the salation of all men

through Christ and in Christ% 3his is the standpoint of the following

rapid analysis

C. :umanity !ithout Chri-t

3he first three chapters of the 1pistle to the Domans shows

us human nature wholly under the dominion of sin% $either Gentiles nor =ews had withstood the torrent of eil% 3he .osaic

'aw was a futile barrier because it prescribed good without importing the

strength to do it% 3he !postle arries at this mournful conclusion 3here

is no distinction Obetween =ew and Gentile@ for all hae sinned, and do

need the glory of God (Domans 522625-% "e subse>uently leads us bac#

to the historical cause of this disorder y one man sin entered into this

world, and by sin death@ and so death passed upon all men, in whom all

hae sinned (Domans &2-% 3his man is obiously !dam, the sin which

he brought into the world is not only his personal sin, but a

predominating sin which entered into all men and left in them the seed of

death !ll sinned when!dam sinned@ all sinned in and with his sin

(Steens, Pauline 3heology, &2)-%

:t remains to be seen how original sin, which is our lot by natural

generation, manifests itself outwardly and becomes the source of

actual sins% 3his Paul teaches us in chapter 7, where describing the contest

between the 'aw assisted by reason and human nature wea#ened by the

flesh and the tendency to eil, he represents nature as ineitably

an>uished or : am delighted with the law of God, according to the

inward man ut : see another law in my members fighting against

the law of my mind, and captiating me in the law of sin (Domans 7226

25-% 3his does not mean that the organism, the material substratus,

is eil in itself, as sometheologians of the 3Lbingen School hae claimed,

for the flesh of Christ, which was li#e unto ours, was exempt from sin, and

the !postle wishes that our bodies, which are destined to rise again, be

presered free from stain% 3he relation between sin and the flesh is neither



inherent nor necessary@ it is accidental, determined by an historical fact,

and capable of disappearing through the interention of the "oly Ghost,

but it is none the less true that it is not in our power to oercome it unaided

and that fallen man had need of a Saiour %

Jet God did not abandon sinful man% "e continued to manifest "imselfthrough this isible world (Domans &&)620-, through the light of

a conscience (Domans 2&*6&-, and finally through "is eer actie and

paternally beneolent xxyyy#%htmIProidence (!cts &*&;@ &72;-%

urthermore, in "is untiring mercy, "e will hae all men to be saed, and

to come to the #nowledge of the truth (& 3imothy 2*-% 3his will is

necessarily subse>uent to original sin since it concerns man as he is at

present% !ccording to "is merciful designs God leads man step by step

to salation% 3o the Patriarchs, and especially to !braham, "e gae his

free and generous promise, confirmed by oath (Domans *&5620@ Galatians

5&6&4-, which anticipated the Gospel% 3o .oses "e gae "is 'aw, theobseration of which should be a means of salation (Domans 7&0@ &0-,

and which, een when iolated, as it was in reality, was no less a guide

leading to Christ (Galatians 52*- and an instrument of mercy in the hands

of God% 3he 'aw was a mere interlude until such time ashumanity should

be ripe for a complete reelation (Galatians 5&)@ Domans 20-, and thus

proo#ed the /iine wrath (Domans *&-% ut good will arise from the

excess of eil and the Scripture hath concluded all under sin, that the

promise, by the faith of =esus Christ, might be gien to them that beliee

(Galatians 522-% 3his would be fulfilled in the fullness of the time

(Galatians **@ 1phesians &&0-, that is, at the time set byGod for the

execution of "is merciful designs, when man8s helplessness should hae

been well manifested% 3hen God sent his Son, made of a woman, made

under the law that he might redeem them who were under the law that we

might receie the adoption of sons (Galatians **-%

. The Per-on o the %edeemer

$early all statements relating to the person of =esus Christ bear either

directly or indirectly on "is role as a Saiour% <ith St% Paul Christology is

a function of soteriology% "oweer broad these outlines, they show us the

faithful image of Christ in "is pre6existence, in "is historical existence

and in "is glorified life (see % Prat, 3hKologie de Saint Paul-%

(1) hrist in 8is pre#e0istence



(a- Christ is of an order superior to all created beings (1phesians &2&-@ "e

is the Creator and Preserer of the <orld (Colossians &&;6&7-@ all is by

"im, in "im, and for "im (Colossians &&;-%

(b- Christ is the image of the inisible ather (2 Corinthians

**@ Colossians &&-@ "e is the Son of God, but unli#e other sons is so inan incommunicable manner@ "e is the Son, the own Son, the well6

eloed, and this "e has always been (2 Corinthians &&)@ Domans

45, 452@ Colossians &&5@ 1phesians &;@ etc%-%

(c- Christ is the object of the doxologies resered for God (2 3imothy

*&4@ Domans &;27-@ "e is prayed to as the e>ual of the ather (2

Corinthians &246)@ Domans &0&2@ & Corinthians &2-@ gifts are as#ed of

"im which it is in the power of God alone to grant, namely grace,

mercy, salation (Domans &7@ &;20@ & Corinthians &5@ &;25@ etc% before

"im eery #nee shall bow in heaen, on earth, and under the earth(Philippians 2&0-, as eery head inclines in adoration of the majesty of

the .ost "igh%

(d- Christ possesses all the /iine attributes@ "e is eternal, since "e is the

first born of eery creature and exists before all ages (Colossians &&6

&7-@ "e is immutable, since "e exists in the form of God (Philippians

2;-@ "e is omnipotent, since "e has the power to bring forth being from

nothingness (Colossians &&;-@ "e is immense, since "e fills all things

with "is plenitude (1phesians *&0@ Colossians 2&0-@ "e isinfinite since

the fullness of the Godhead dwells in "im (Colossians 2)-% !ll that isthe special property of the God belongs of right to "im@ the judgment seat

of God is the judgment seat of Christ (Domans &*&0@ 2 Corinthians &0-@

the Gospel of God is the Gospel of Christ (Domans &&, &), &&;, &&),

etc%-@ the Church of God is the Church of Christ (& Corinthians

&2 and Domans &;&; s>>%-@ the 9ingdom of God is

the9ingdom of Christ (1phesians -, the Spirit of God is

the Spirit of Christ (Domans 4) s>>%-%

(e- Christ is the one 'ord (& Corinthians 4;-@ "e is identified

with =ehoah of the ?ld Coenant (& Corinthians &0*, &0)@ Domans&0&5@ cf% & Corinthians 2&;@ )2&-@ "e is the God who has purchased

the Churchwith his own blood (!cts 2024-@ "e is our great God and

Saiour =esus Christ (3itus 2&5-@ "e is the God oer all things

(Domans )-, effacing by "is infinite transcendency the sum and

substance of createdthings%



(2) esus hrist as 7an

3he other aspect of the figure of Christ is drawn with no less firm a

hand% =esus Christ is the second !dam (Domans &*@ & Corinthians &*6

*)-@ the mediator of God and men (& 3imothy 2-, and as such "e must

necessarily be man (anthropos hristos 9esous-% So "e is the descendantof the Patriarchs (Domans )@ Galatians 5&;-, "e is of the seed

of /aid, according to the flesh- (Domans &5-, born of a woman

(Galatians **-, li#e all men@ finally, "e is #nown as a man by "is

appearance, which is exactly similar to that of men (Philippians 27-, sae

for sin, which "e did not and could not #now (2 Corinthians 2&-%

<henSt% Paul says that God sent "is Son in the li#eness of sinful flesh

(Domans 45-, he does not mean to deny the reality of Christ8s flesh, but

excludes only sinful flesh%

$owhere does the !postle explain how the union of the /iine andthe human natures is accomplished in Christ, being content to affirm that

"e who was in the form of God too# the form of a serant (Philippians

2;67-, or he states the :ncarnation in this laconic formula or in him

dwelleth all the fullness of the Godhead corporeally (Colossians 2)-%

<hat we see clearly is that there is in Christ a single Person to whom are

attributed, often in the same sentence, >ualities proper to the /iine and

the human nature, to the pre6existence, the historical existence, and the

glorified life (Colossians &&6&)@ Philippians 26&&@ etc%-%

3hetheological explanation of the mystery has gien rise to

numerous errors% /enial was made of one of the natures, either

the human (/ocetism-, or the /iine (!rianism-, or the two natures were

considered to be united in a purely accidental manner so as to produce

two persons ( $estorianism-, or the two natures were merged into one

(.onophysitism-, or on pretext of uniting them in

one person the heretics mutilated either

thehuman nature (!pollinarianism-, or the /iine, according to the strange

modern heresy #nown as 9enosis%

3he last6mentioned re>uires a brief treatment, as it is based on a saying

of St% Paul eing in the form of God % % % emptied himself (ekenosen

eauton, hence kenosis- ta#ing the form of a serant (Philippians 2;67-%

Contrary to the common opinion, 'uther applied these words not to

the <ord, but to Christ, the :ncarnate <ord% .oreoer he understood

the communicatio idiomatus as a real possession by each of the twonatures

of the attributes of the other% !ccording to this

the human nature of Christ would possess the /iine attributes of ubi>uity,



omniscience, and omnipotence% 3here are two systems

among 'utheran theologians, one asserting that

the human nature of Christ was oluntarily stripped of these attributes

(kenosis-, the other that they were hidden during "is

mortal existence (krypsis-%

:n modern times the doctrine of 9enosis, while still restricted

to 'utheran theology, has completely changed its opinions% Starting with

the philosophical idea that personality is identified with consciousness,

it is maintained that where there is only one person there can be only

one consciousness@ but since the consciousness of Christ was

truly human consciousness, the /iine consciousness must

of necessity hae ceased to exist or act in "im% !ccording to 3homasius,

the theorist of the system, the Son of God was stripped, not after

the :ncarnation, as 'uther asserted, but by the ery fact of the :ncarnation,

and what rendered possible the union of the 'ogos with the humanity wasthe faculty possessed by the /iinity to limit itself both as to being and

actiity% 3he other partisans of the system express themseles in a similar

manner% Gess, for instance, says that in =esus Christ the /iine ego is

changed into the human ego% <hen it is objected that God is immutable,

that "e can neither cease to be, nor limit "imself, nor transform "imself,

they reply that this reasoning is on metaphysical hypotheses and concepts

without reality% (or the arious forms of 9enosis see ruce, 3he

"umiliation of Christ, p% &5;%-

!ll these systems are merely ariations of .onophysitism% Fnconsciously

they assume that there is in Christ but a single nature as there is but a

single person% !ccording to the Catholic doctrine, on the contrary, the

union of the two natures in a single person inoles no change in

the /iine nature and need inole no physical change of

the human nature of Christ% <ithout doubt Christ is the Son and is morally

entitled een asman to the goods of "is ather, i% the immediate ision

of God, eternal beatitude, the state of glory% "e is temporarily depried of

a portion of these goods in order that he may fulfill "is mission as

Dedeemer% 3his is the abasement, the annihilation, of which St% Paul

spea#s, but it is a totally different thing from the 9enosis as described

aboe%

E. The &=ecti4e %edemption a- the 2or# o Chri-t

<e hae seen that fallen man being unable to arise again unaided, God in

"is mercy sent "is Son to sae him% :t is an elementary and often



repeated doctrine of St% Paul that =esus Christ saes us through the Cross,

that we are justified by "is blood, that we were reconciled to God by

the death of his Son (Domans )6&0-% <hat endowed the blood of Christ,

"is death, "is Cross, with this redeeming irtueM Paul neer answers this

>uestion directly, but he shows us the drama of Calary under three

aspects, which there is danger in separating and which are betterunderstood when compared

(a- at one time the death of Christ is a sacrifice intended, li#e the sacrifice

of the ?ld 'aw, to expiate sin and propitiate God% Cf% Sanday and

"eadlam, Domans, )&6)*, 3he death of Christ considered as

asacrifice% :t is impossible from this passage (Domans 52- to get rid of

the double idea (&- of a sacrifice@ (2- of a sacrifice which is propitiatory % %

% Quite apart from this passage it is not difficult to proe that these

two ideas of sacrifice and propitiation lie at the root of the teaching not

only of St% Paul but of the $ew 3estament generally% 3he double dangerof this idea is, first to wish to apply to the sacrifice of Christ all the mode

of action, real or supposed, of the imperfect sacrifices of the ?ld 'aw@ and

second, to beliee that God is appeased by a sort of magical effect, in

irtue of this sacrifice, whereas on the contrary it was "e <ho too# the

initiatie of mercy, instituted the sacrifice of Calary, and endowed it with

its expiatory alue%

(b- !t another time the death of Christ is represented as a redemption, the

payment of a ransom, as the result of which man was deliered from all

his past seritude (& Corinthians ;20@ 725 Otimes egorasthete@Galatians

5&5@ * Oina tous hypo nomon e0agorase@ Domans 52*@ & Corinthians

&50@ 1phesians &7, &*@ Colossians &&* Oapolytrosis@ & 3imothy

2; Oantilytron@ etc%- 3his idea, correct as it is, may hae inconeniences if

isolated or exaggerated% y carrying it beyond what was written, some of

the athers put forth the strange suggestion of a ransom paid by Christ to

the demon who held us in bondage% !nother mista#e is to regard the death

of Christ as haing a alue in itself, independent of Christ <ho offered it

and God <ho accepted it for the remission of our sins%

(c- ?ften, too, Christ seems to substitute "imself for us in order to

undergo in our stead the chastisement for sin% "e suffers physical death to

sae us from the moral death of sin and presere us from eternal death%

3his idea of substitution appealed so strongly to 'utheran theologians that

they admitted >uantitatie e>uality between the sufferings really endured

by Christ and the penalties desered by our sins% 3hey een maintained



that =esus underwent the penalty of loss (of the ision of God- and

the malediction of the ather%

3hese are the extraagances which hae cast so much discredit on the

theory of subsitution% :t has been rightly said that the transfer of a

chastisement from one person to another is an injustice and acontradiction, for the chastisement is inseparable from the fault and an

undesered chastisement is no longer a chastisement% esides, St% Paul

neer said that Christ died in our stead (anti-, but only that he died for us

(hyper - because of our sins%

:n reality the three standpoints considered aboe are but three aspects of

the Dedemption which, far from excluding one another, should harmonie

and combine, modifying if necessary all the other aspects of the problem%

:n the following text St% Paul assembles these arious aspects with seeral

others% <e are justified freely by his grace, through the Dedemption, thatis in Christ =esus, whom God hath proposed to be a propitiation,

through faith in his blood, to the shewing of his Ohidden justice, for the

remission of former sins, through the forbearance of God, for the shewing

of his justice in this time@ that of himself may be O#nown as just, and the

justifier of him, who is in the faith of =esus Christ (Domans 52*62;-%

"erein are designated the part of God, of Christ, and of man

o God ta#es the initiatie@ it is "e who offers "is Son@ "e intends to

manifest "is justice, but is moed thereto by mercy% :t is therefore

incorrect or more or less inade>uate to say that God was angry withthehuman race and that "e was only appeased by the death of

"is Son%

o Christ is our Dedemption (apolytrosis-, "e is the instrument of

expiation or propitiation (ilasterion-, and is such by

"is Sacrifice (en to autou aimati-, which does not resemble those of

irrational animals@ it deries its alue from Christ, who offers it for

us to "is ather through obedience and loe (Philippians

24@ Galatians 220-%

o .an is not merely passie in the drama of his salation@ he must

understand the lesson which God teaches, and appropriate

by faith the fruit of the Dedemption%

F. The Su&=ecti4e %edemption

Christ haing once died and risen, the Dedemption is completed in law and

in principle for the whole human race% 1ach man ma#es it his own in fact



and in act by faith and baptism which, by uniting him with Christ,causes

him to participate in "is /iine life% aith, according to St% Paul, is

composed of seeral elements@ it is the submission of the intellect to

the word of God, the trusting abandonment of the belieer to

the Saiour <ho promises him assistance@ it is also an act of obedience by

which man accepts the /iine will% Such an act has a moral alue, for itgies glory to God (Domans *20- in the measure in which it recognies

its own helplessness% 3hat is why !braham belieed God, and it was

reputed to him unto justice (Domans *5@ Galatians 5;-% 3he spiritual

children of !braham are li#ewise justified by faith, without the wor#s of

the law (Domans 524@ cf% Galatians 2&;-% "ence it follows

o 3hat justice is granted by God in consideration of faith%

o 3hat, neertheless, faith is not e>uialent to justice,

since man is justified by grace (Domans *;-%

o 3hat the justice freely granted to man becomes his property and isinherent in him%

Protestants formerly asserted that the justice of Christ is imputed to us, but

now they are generally agreed that this argument is unscriptural and lac#s

the guaranty of Paul@ but some, loth to base justification on a goodwor#

(ergon-, deny a moral alue to faith and claim that justification is but a

forensic judgment of God which alters absolutely nothing in

the justified sinner % ut this theory is untenable, for

o een admitting that to justify signifies to pronounce just, it isabsurd to suppose that God really pronounces just anyone who is

not already so or who is not rendered so by the declaration itself%

o =ustification is inseparable from sanctification, for the latter is

a justification of life (Domans &4- and eery just man lieth

by faith (Domans &&7@ Galatians 5&&-%

o y faith and baptism we die to the old man, our former seles@

now this is impossible without beginning to lie as the new man,

who according to God, is created in justice and holiness (Domans

;56@1phesians *2*@ & Corinthians &50@ ;&&-% <e may, therefore,

establish a distinction in definition and concept

between justification and sanctification, but we can neither separate

them nor regard them as separate%

;. oral octrine



! remar#able characteristic of Paulinism is that it connects morality

with the subjectie redemption or justification% 3his is especially

stri#ing in chapter ; of the 1pistle to the Domans% :n baptism our

old man is crucified with OChrist that, the body of sin may be

destroyed, to the end that we may sere sin no longer (Domans

;;-% ?ur incorporation with the mystical Christ is not only atransformation and a metamorphosis, but a real reaction, the

production of a new being, subject to new laws and conse>uently to

new duties% 3o understand the extent of our obligations it is enough

for us to #now ourseles asChristians and to reflect on the arious

relations which result from our supernatural birth that

of sonship to God the ather , of consecration to the "oly Ghost,

of mystical identity with our Saiour =esus Christ, of brotherly

union with the other members of Christ% ut this is not all% Paul says

to the neophytes

3han#s be to God, that you were the serants of sin, but

hae obeyed from the heart unto that form of doctrine, into which

you hae been deliered% % % % ut now being made free from sin,

and become serants to God, you hae your fruit unto

sanctification, and the end life eerlasting (Domans ;&7, 22-%

y the act of faith and by baptism, its seal, the Christian freely

ma#es himself the serant of God and the soldier

of Christ% God8s will, which he accepts in adance in the measure in

which it shall be manifested, becomes thenceforth his rule of

conduct% 3hus Paul8s moral code rests on the one hand on the

positie will of God made #nown by Christ, promulgated by

the !postles, and irtually accepted by the neophytein his first act

of faith, and on the other, in baptismal regeneration and the new

relations which it produces% !ll Paul8s commands and

recommendations are merely applications of these principles%

:. E-chatolo0y

(&- 3he graphic description of the Pauline parousia (& 3hessalonians*&;6&7@ 2 3hessalonians &76&0- has nearly all its main points

in Christ8s great eschatological discourse (.atthew 2*, .ar#

&5, 'u#e 2&-% ! common characteristic of all these passages is the

apparent nearness of the parousia% Paul does not assert that the

coming of the Saiour is at hand% :n each of the fie epistles,

wherein he expresses the desire and the hope to witness in person



the return of Christ, he at the same time considers the probability of

the contrary hypothesis, proing that he had

neither reelation nor certainty on the point% "e #nows only that

the day of the lord will come unexpectedly, li#e a thief (&

3hessalonians 265-, and he counsels the neophytes to ma#e

themseles ready without neglecting the duties of their state of life(2 3hessalonians 5;6&2-% !lthough the coming of Christ will be

sudden, it will be heralded by three signs

general apostasy (2 3hessalonians 25-,

the appearance of !ntichrist (256&2-, and

the conersion of the =ews (Domans &&2;-%

! particular circumstance of St% Paul8s preaching is that the just who

shall be liing at Christ8s second adent will pass

to glorious immortality without dying O& 3hessalonians *&7@ &Corinthians && (Gree# text-@ 2 Corinthians 26%

(2- ?wing to the doubts of the Corinthians Paul treats

the resurrection of the just at some length% "e does not ignore

the resurrection of the sinners, which he affirmed before the

Goernor elix (!cts 2*&-, but he does not concern himself with

it in his 1pistles% <hen he says that the dead who are

in Christ shall rise first ( proton, & 3hessalonians *&;, Gree#- this

first offsets, not another resurrection of the dead, but

the glorious transformation of the liing% :n li#e manner the eilof which he spea#s (tou telos, & Corinthians &2*- is not the end of

the resurrection, but of the present world and the beginning of a

new order of things% !ll the arguments which he adances in behalf

of the resurrection may be reduced to three the mystical union of

the Christian with Christ, the presence within us of the Spirit of

"oliness, the interior and supernatural coniction of the faithful and

the !postles% :t is eident that these arguments deal only with

the glorious resurrection of the just% :n short, the resurrection of the

wic#ed does not come within his theological horion% <hat is the

condition of the souls of the just between death and resurrectionM

3hese souls enjoy the presence of Christ (2 Corinthians 4-@ their

lot is eniable (Philippians &25-@ hence it is impossible that they

should be without life, actiity, or consciousness%

(5- 3he judgment according to St% Paul as according to

the Synoptics, is closely connected with the parousia and



the resurrection% 3hey are the three acts of the same drama which

constitute the /ay of the 'ord (& Corinthians &4@ 2 Corinthians

&&*@ Philippians &;, &0@ 2&;-% or we must all be manifested

before the judgment seat of Christ, that eery one may receie the

proper things of the body, according as he hath done, whether it

be good or eil (2 Corinthians &0-%

3wo conclusions are deried from this text

(&- 3he judgment shall be uniersal, neither the good nor

the wic#ed shall escape (Domans &*&06&2-, nor een the angels (&

Corinthians ;5-@ all who are brought to trial must account for the

use of their liberty%

(2- 3he judgment shall be according to wor#s this is

a truth fre>uently reiterated by St% Paul, concerning sinners (2Corinthians &&&-, the just (2 3imothy *&*-, and men in general

(Domans 2;6)-% .anyProtestants marel at this and claim that

in St% Paul this doctrine is a surial of

his rabbinical education (Pfleiderer-, or that he could not ma#e it

harmonie with his doctrine of gratuitous justification (Deuss-, or

that the reward will be in proportion to the act, as the harest is in

proportion to the sowing, but that it will not be because of or with a

iew to the act (<eiss-% 3hese authors lose sight of the fact that St%

Paul distinguishes between two justifications, the first necessarily

gratuitous since man was then incapable of meriting it (Domans524@ Galatians 2&;-, the second in conformity to his wor#s

(Domans 2; kata ta erga-, since man, when adorned

with sanctifying grace, is capable of merit as the sinner is of

demerit% "ence the celestial recompense is a crown

of justice which the 'ord the just judge will render (2 3imothy *4-

to whomsoeer has legitimately gained it%

riefly, St% Paul8s eschatology is not so distinctie as it has been

made to appear% Perhaps its most original characteristic is the

continuity between the present and the future of the just, between grace and glory, between salation begun

and salation consummated% ! large number of

terms, redemption, justification, salation, #ingdom, glory and

especially life, are common to the two states, or rather to the two

phases of the same existence lin#ed by charity which neer falleth

away%



Pu&lication inormation

<ritten by % Prat% 3ranscribed by /onald =% oon%

3he Catholic 1ncyclopedia, Bolume A:% Published &)&&% $ew Jor# Dobert

!ppleton Company% $ihil ?bstat, ebruary &, &)&&% Demy 'afort, S%3%/%,

Censor% :mprimatur% R=ohn Cardinal arley, !rchbishop of $ew Jor#

Copyright 2007 by 9ein 9night% !ll rights resered%

:e Advent is dedicated to the 9mmaculate 8eart of 7ary'

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