* An Introduction to Applied Linguistics/ Chapter 13

ReadingInstructor: Dr.Dana

Student: Omid Sanaei

Interest in second language reading:

* Introduction

Part of this interest:

• 1) Increasing recognition that reading abilities are critical for academic learning.

• 2) L2 reading represents the way that L2 students can learn on their own beyond the classroom.

Part of this interest:

• 1) The increasing recognition that we all live in a multi-lingual and multi-cultural world.

Part of this interest:

• 1) Evolves out of increasing numbers of immigrant.

• 2) Language minority students in L1 educational system around the world and efforts to address their needs.

The many purpose of reading, although drawing on the same cognitive processes and knowledge re-sources, do so in differing combinational on these processes and re-sources.

For gathering information, we will search for by combination of skimming & scanning small segments. Example: reading a newspaper: we skim & Reading a novel: we don’t skim.

Carver (1992): Scanning is a reading process that requires recognition of visual forms (number, word or phrase) that can be matched to forms in the text.

*What is Reading?

1) Reading for understanding 2) Reading to learn

Under both reading Purposes, It is possible to say that reading is “ the process of receiving and interpreting information encoded in language form via the medium of print” (Urquhart & Weir, 1998).

* Two Purposes of This Chapter:

L2 readers exhibit the full range of variation that can be found in L1 readers ( variation in training, schooling, motivation and…).

L2 readers are acquiring a complex cognitive ability that is in some ways distinct from L1 reading.

L2 readers don’t have the same language resources as L1 readers.

L2 readers don’t share all the social & cultural assumption & knowledge bases that L1 readers use when reading in their own language.

They are learning L2 for various reasons: a) to return to their home country, b) to integrate in the L2 Society.

* Reading in a Second Language

First, research in L2 reading will need to examine the potential impact of these differences and can not assume that results of research on L1 reading will apply in L2 context.

Second, these differences suggest that L2 readers may employ cognitive resources in different ways from L1 readers.

Third, the cognitive processes maybe different as a result of working with more than one language.

L2 Reading Versus L1 Reading Major differences btw L1 & L2 reading can be catagorized

according to three groupings: Linguistic & processing differences; Other individual & experiential differences; And socio-cultural and institutional differences (Grabe & Stoller).

* These Differences Have Three Sequences:

1. Differing amounts of lexical, grammatical, and discourse knowledge at beginning stages of L1 & L2 reading.

2. Varying linguistic differences across any two languages & varying language-transfer influences.

3. Intracting influence of working with two languages.

4. Varying L2 proficiencies as a foundation for L2 reading. The consequences of this variation is demonstrated by their abilities to carry out different reading task successfully.

* Key Linguistic & Processing Differences

The second set of factor play important roles in L2 reading development & They suggest that L1 reading findings need to be examined in light of L2 research findings rather than be assumed to apply to L2 Instruction.

5. Differing levels of L1 reading abilities among the L2 students.

6. Differing amounts of exposure to L2 print.7. Differing motivations for reading in the L2.8. Differing kinds of texts in L2 setting.9. Differing language learning resources for L2 learners.

* Key Individual & Experiential Differences

These topics are unexplored & the L2 research to date suggests that these differences can influence the development of L2 reading abilities.

10.Differing socio-cultural backgrounds of L2 readers.

11.Differing ways to recognize discourse & texts in L1 & L2 setting.

12.Differing expectations of educational institutions in L1 & L2 setting.

* Key Socio-Cultural & Institutional Factors

Word recognition is at the center of reading fluency & automaticity.

Much of the research in second language reading has focused on vocabulary issues.

Koda (1996):Word recognition in second language reading must be

viewed as a ‘ significant phenomenon in its own right’ and not just as a facet of overall second language proficiency.

L2 word recognition is affected by: 1) The amount of L2 orthographic processing experience, 2) The distance btw the orthographies of L1 & L2, 3) The interaction btw L1 & L2 orthographic knowledge.

* Issues in L2 ReadingAutomaticity and Word Recognition

Segalowitz (1983):

If a second language is weaker than the first language, and reading is slower in the second language, word recognition in the L2 is less automatic than in the L1.

Segalowitz (1993) showed that practice on word recognition tasks lead to faster and more stable (less variable) response.

Geva et al. (1997):

Steps associated with the development of L1 reading efficiency maybe applicable to the development of word recognition skills in L2.

Linguistic features such as ‘orthographic depth’ (the degree which the written system corresponds to spoken system) morpho-syntactic complexity, may interact with more global L2 proficiency effects’ determine the course of early L2 reading development.

According to the orthographic depth hypothesis (Feldman & Turvey,1983):

Pre lexical phonology play an important role in lexical access in ‘shallow orthographics’ , where the correspondences of graphemes to phonemes are more direct & consistent than in ‘deep orthographics’, where the mapping of letters to sound is less direct & consistent.

Cross-linguistic research comparing L2 learners with different L1 backgrounds has demonstrated superior word recognition performance for those with L1 orthographic backgrounds more similar to the L2.

* L2 Word Recognition Differences across L1s

Green & Meava (1987):

L1 writing system have a deep and lasting effect on the ways in which L2 materials are processed.

Researchers have investigated the influence of L1 phonology on L2 word recognition, and on L2 reading.

L1 learners show preferences for acquiring new vocabulary (in their L1) with phonological pattern (‘phonotactics’) that are familiar to them.

Meaning of common English words with familiar L1 Phonotactic pattern were easier to acquire than the meaning of common English word with unfamiliar L1 phonotactic pattern.

Issues that center on the contributing role of vocabulary knowledge for L2 reading abilities:

1. The number of words needed to read L2 texts independently & for instructional uses.

2. The role of context in L2 vocabulary acquisition & in the guessing of word meaning in L2 reading.

3. The role of dictionary of various kinds & the use of cognates in L2 vocabulary acquisition & in L2 reading.

4. The ways L2 learners go about a task of acquiring vocabulary in the L2.

5. The role of extensive reading in the ‘incidental’ acquisition of L2 vocabulary & the role of vocabulary instruction.

6. The impact of various kinds of vocabulary instruction on L2 vocabulary learning.

*VocabularyIssues in Vocabulary & L2 Reading Development

Laufer (1989): L2 readers had a significantly higher chance of being a ‘reader’ if they understood 95 percent of the text’s word tokens.

Based on Hu & Nation the percentage necessary might be closer to 98 percent.

Hirsh & nation (1992): Their result showed that in order to achieve 97-98 percent coverage of running words in such texts, that a vocabulary size of about 5000 word families would be needed.

* How Much L2 Lexis is Needed?

Hazenberg & Hulstign (1996):

Assessed the representativeness of the same 23,000 words to cover first-year university reading materials.

Found that the coverage of the academic corpus didn’t differ from the coverage of the larger general corpus.

Developed a vocabulary test aimed at measuring receptive knowledge of more than 18,000 content words of the 23,000 words.

They concluded that the minimal size vocabulary needed for university study is 10,000 base words.

Haynes (1984):Students make greater use of local, rather than global,

contextual clues in their contextual guessing of word meanings.

Guessable contexts to native speakers are often incomprehensible context to non-native speakers.

Guessing from Context & Retention Mondria & Wit-de Boer (1991):Factors such as ‘subject’, ‘verb’ & ‘function’ contribute

to the guessability of a word in a sentence context, and that correctly guessing a word didn’t lead to improved retention as compared guessing a word incorrectly.

* The Role of Context in Guessing/Guessability of Word Meaning in L2 Reading

By Contrast

* Dictionary Use & L2 Reading

Sim & Weiss (1984):These two studies

together suggest that dictionary use during reading may not be facilitative of second

language reading comprehension, and possibly unnecessary

Knight (1994):Reading

comprehension was the better for the group who had access to a

computerized dictionary than for the

group with no access to the dictionary

Knight examined the reading comprehension scores according to verbal ability, no difference was found btw the dictionary & non-dictionary condition for high verbal ability learners.

The dictionary access was significant only for the lower verbal ability group.

Higher group performed better than lower group both with & without dictionary, But the two groups performed similarly to each other when they access to the dictionary.

The dictionary use can help weaker students close the gap btw themselves & higher ability students.

Carver (1992):Fluent readers read at rates btw 200 wpm & 300 wpm

& this fluency develops consistency across age & grade levels.

Anderson (1991): Worked with students to increase reading rate.

*Reading Rate

• Increase their reading rate (from 161 wpm to 275 wpm)

• Didn’t make significant comprehension signs

Students in experimental

group

• An insignificant increase (from 160 wpm to 167 wpm)

• Make significant comprehension signs

Students in control group

In Contrast

* Weigle & Jensen (1996):Speculate that reading rate development

training may have been more

effective for students who

were strong L2 readers

Weaker readers need to develop their

‘bottom-up’ skills of word recognition &

vocabulary development before rate development exercises can be

beneficial

A major research topic for L2 reading is L2 language proficiency is needed as a support for L2 reading before L1 reading strategies & skills can be used in a context.

Research results led to the formulation of two contradictory positions:

a) ‘Language threshold’ or ‘short-circuit hypothesis’

b) ‘Linguistic interdependence hypothesis’

* Language Threshold

The language threshold hypothesis: Some minimal threshold of proficiency in the L2 must be attained in order for the reader’s first language skills to transfer to reading in the second language.

The linguistic interdependence hypothesis: reading or learning to read is accomplished only once, and the once learners have matured in their ability to read in the first language, the awareness of the reading process transfers to the second language & does not need to be relearned.

Studies show that for students who lacked cultural background knowledge for particular texts, explicit teaching of appropriate background information could facilitate second language reading (Floyd & Carrell, 1987).

Bernhardt (1991) caution against a predictive relationship btw background knowledge & foreign language reading comprehension.

Recent research has shown that there are complex interaction btw background knowledge & topic-interest, found significant interaction btw the two.

If either prior knowledge or topic-interest is high, students perform better than if both of them are low.

* The Role of Background Knowledge in Reading

Texts have particular rhetorical organizational patterns & text readers background knowledge of text structure cues affect their reading in a foreign language (Geva,1983; Carrell,1984).

Carrell (1992) found that students who process a kind of background knowledge-awareness of different patterns are more likely to use a structure strategy when they read , and also more likely to understand more what they read.

* Knowledge of Text Structure & Discourse Cues

Meta cognition plays a vital role in reading.

One’s ‘knowledge’ as well as ‘control’ or regulation of one’s own action while reading for different purposes are two different aspects of meta-cognition.

* Meta-Cognition & Reading Strategies

Higher levels of meta-

cognitive knowledge as well as control

of their reading

Less sophistication in meta-cognition

Succ

essf

ul

read

ers

show

… Less successful readers show

…

One important aspect of meta-cognition is controlling one’s reading process through the use of strategies.

Block (1986) found four characteristics seem to differentiate the more successful from the less successful:

Ability to integrate information.Ability to recognize aspect of text structure.Ability to use general knowledge, personal experience &

associations.Ability to address information in the text rather than

respond personally.

Anderson (1991): Successful strategic reading was not only ‘a matter of knowing strategy to use, but also… knowing how to use a strategy successfully & to orchestrate its use with other strategies.

Learners who were taught mapping strategies to recognize & use the rhetorical structure of texts, strategies for word, sentence & discourse analysis & strategies relating to Experience-Text-Relationship (ETR) & semantic mapping all improved their reading skills.

Due to the nature of extensive reading treatment, it is difficult to control a number of other factors & variables.

Although there are good reasons to believe in the importance of extensive reading, what is not clear is extensive reading should be balanced with an intensive reading programme containing well-considered reading instruction/pedagogy. For example: in reading strategies, in vocabulary.

* Extensive Reading / Impact of Exposure to Print

*Thanks for Your

Attention